Necessary Conditions of Learning

"Marton has provided an outstanding exposition of his lifetimes thought. Through describing research and teaching in a variety of subjects he exemplifies the theory of learning through discernment of variation. This stimulating and scholarly book acts both as a handbook for design of teaching and teaching materials, and as a basis for understanding more about learning in educational contexts." Anne Watson, University of Oxford, UK

Ference Marton is Professor of Education at the Gteborg University, Sweden and Honorary Professor at the Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. He is internationally known for introducing the distinction between deep and surface approaches to learning, for developing phenomenography as a methodology for educational research, and more recently for developing the variation theory of learning. Both the methodology and theory were developed by Marton together with research groups in Sweden, the UK, Australia, and China.

Preface 1. What makes humans human? Cultural evolution The species that teaches its offspring The origin of pedagogy Learning from others Learning as a by-product and learning as an aim "De-pedagogizing" learning Pedagogies of learning Teachers professional knowledge What this book is about 2. What is to be learned? What matters? Organizing learning What is to be learned? Learning as differentiation Different meanings of what is to be learned 3. Sameness and difference in learning The problem with direct reference Discerning features that have been discerned previously Discerning features that have not been discerned previously We do have to learn to discern features whether or not they are innate Learning to discern novel features and aspects Dimensions of variation, and values* Neither from the specific to the general, nor the other way around Patterns of variation and invariance The path of learning Critical aspects and critical features again Why is the experience of difference, against a background of the experience of sameness, necessary for learning to discern novel features and novel aspects? Delimitation Grouping Differences and experienced differences Discernment, difference, simultaneity Discerning and learning to discern Using the known to prepare for the unknown The transfer of learning 4. What does the world look like to others? The revelation of Jonas Emanuelsson What is to be learned, again: Ways of seeing Finding critical aspects The learners perspective and the observers perspective Logic and understanding Asking questions Analyzing answers The idea of phenomenography Qualitative differences in learning, specific to specific objects of learning 5. The art of learning Learners generating patterns of variation and invariance Discoveries as discernments Innovations and the opening up of new dimensions of variation Finding novel meanings 6. Making learning possible Three faces of the object of learning Necessary conditions of necessary conditions of learning The origin of differences Analysing lessons Comparing teaching Relating learning and teaching to each other Bringing about learning: Patterns of variation and invariance as tools for planning and conducting teaching Bringing learning about: Implementing patterns of variation and invariance Bringing about learning: The order of things Hierarchical and sequential structure in reading and writing Can the "art of learning" be learned? There are no teaching experiments Putting conjectures to the test The Chinese connection 7. Learning to help others to learn What teachers have to be good at