Introduction to Environmental Analysis

"...covers established and innovative methods in the field.." (SciTech Book News, Vol. 26, No. 2, June 2002) "...The approach works well and this book is a good primer on an important subject..." (Laboratory News, July 2002) "...Anyone interested in the topic should give this book a closer look..." (Environmental Geology, October 2002) "...useful to working environmental analysts..." (Industry & Environment, July-December 2002) "...This is an extremely useful book ....Suitable for self-study, the book would be a valuable addition to the library of anyone working in environmental analysis". (Education in Chemistry, July 2003) "...offers all that an instructor or student would desire to have in a text...a good reference for environmental professionals..." (The Chemist, Summer 2003) "...easy-to-read...a wide range of excellent material..." (Metrohm Information Issue, Vol 3 2003)

Roger N. Reeve is the author of Introduction to Environmental Analysis, published by Wiley.

Series Preface xiii Preface xv Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols xix About the Author xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Environment 1 1.2 Reasons for Concern 2 1.2.1 Todays World 4 1.2.2 Past and Current Crimes 4 1.3 Pollution 4 1.4 The Necessity of Chemical Analysis 8 2 Transport of Pollutants in the Environment and Approaches to their Analysis 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Sources, Dispersal, Reconcentration and Degradation 12 2.3 Transport and Reconcentration of Neutral Organic Compounds 15 2.3.1 Bioconcentration 16 2.3.2 Accumulation in Sediments 17 2.3.3 Biomagnification 18 2.3.4 Degradation 19 2.4 Transport and Reconcentration of Metal Ions 20 2.4.1 Solubilization 22 2.4.2 Deposition in Sediments 22 2.4.3 Uptake by Organisms 22 2.5 What is a Safe Level? 23 2.6 Sampling and Sample Variability 24 2.6.1 Representative Samples 24 2.6.2 Sample Storage 25 2.6.3 Critical Paths and Critical Groups 26 2.7 General Approach to Analysis 26 2.8 The Choice of Laboratory or Field Analysis 28 2.9 Quality Assurance 30 2.9.1 Finding a Suitable Method 32 2.9.2 Laboratory Standards 33 3 Water Analysis Major Constituents 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Sampling 41 3.3 Measurement of Water Quality 46 3.3.1 Suspended Solids 46 3.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen and Oxygen Demand 47 3.3.3 Total Organic Carbon 54 3.3.4 pH, Acidity and Alkalinity 55 3.3.5 Water Hardness 57 3.3.6 Electrical Conductivity 59 3.4 Techniques for the Analysis of Common Ions 61 3.4.1 Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrometry 61 3.4.2 Emission Spectrometry (Flame Photometry) 68 3.4.3 Ion Chromatography 69 3.4.4 Examples of the Use of Other Techniques 73 4 Water Analysis Trace Pollutants 77 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 Organic Trace Pollutants 78 4.2.1 Guidelines for Storage of Samples and their Subsequent Analysis 80 4.2.2 Extraction Techniques for Chromatographic Analysis 81 4.2.3 Gas Chromatography 88 4.2.4 Liquid Chromatography 101 4.2.5 Immunoassay 105 4.2.6 Spectrometric Methods 110 4.3 Metal Ions 112 4.3.1 Storage of Samples for Metal Ion Analysis 112 4.3.2 Pretreatment 113 4.3.3 Atomic Spectrometry 114 4.3.4 Visible Spectrometry 124 4.3.5 Anodic Stripping Voltammetry 125 4.3.6 Liquid Chromatography 128 4.3.7 Metal Speciation: A Comparison of Techniques 131 5 Analysis of Land, Solids and Waste 135 5.1 Introduction 135 5.2 Common Problem Areas in the Analysis of Solids 138 5.2.1 Sampling 138 5.2.2 Pretreatment 139 5.2.3 Extraction of the Analyte 140 5.2.4 Sample Clean-up 140 5.2.5 Analytical Determination 141 5.2.6 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 141 5.3 Specific Considerations for the Analysis of Biological Samples 142 5.3.1 Sampling and Storage of Plant Material 142 5.3.2 Pretreatment 142 5.3.3 Extraction Techniques for Organic Contaminants 144 5.3.4 Ashing and Dissolution Techniques for Trace Metals 145 5.3.5 Analysis of Animal Tissues 146 5.4 Specific Considerations for the Analysis of Soils 146 5.4.1 Sampling and Storage 146 5.4.2 Pretreatment 148 5.4.3 Extraction of Organic Contaminants 148 5.4.4 Extraction of Available Ions 149 5.4.5 Dissolution Techniques for the Determination of Total Metal Concentrations in Soil 150 5.4.6 Determination of pH 150 5.5 Specific Considerations for the Analysis of Contaminated Land 151 5.5.1 Steps in the Investigation of Contaminated Land 152 5.5.2 Sampling, Sample Storage and Pretreatment 154 5.6 Specific Considerations for the Analyses Involved in Waste and its Disposal by Landfill 156 5.6.1 Types of Waste and their Disposal 156 5.6.2 Sampling and Storage 158 5.6.3 Pretreatment of Solids and Liquids with a High Solid Content 160 5.6.4 Analysis of Leachate 161 5.6.5 Introduction to Gaseous Emissions 164 5.7 Specific Considerations for the Analysis of Sediments and Sewage Sludge 165 5.7.1 Sampling and Storage 165 5.7.2 Pretreatment 165 5.7.3 Extra