Metal Additive Manufacturing

Ehsan Toyserkani, Professor, Multi-Scale Additive Manufacturing Lab, Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Dyuti Sarker, Research Scientist 1, Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia, USA. Osezua Obehi Ibhadode, Researcher, Multi-Scale Additive Manufacturing Lab, Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Farzad Liravi, Research Associate, Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Paola Russo, Applications Scientist, Angstrom Engineering Inc., Kitchener, ON, Canada. Katayoon Taherkhani, Ph.D. Candidate, Multi-Scale Additive Manufacturing Lab, Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.

Preface xv Abbreviations xvii 1 Additive Manufacturing Process Classification, Applications, Trends, Opportunities, and Challenges 1 1.1 Additive Manufacturing: A Long-Term Game Changer 1 1.2 AM Standard Definition and Classification 4 1.3 Why Metal Additive Manufacturing? 5 1.4 Market Size: Current and Future Estimation 11 1.5 Applications of Metal AM 12 1.5.1 Medical and Dental 14 1.5.2 Aerospace and Defense 15 1.5.3 Communication 17 1.5.4 Energy and Resources 18 1.5.5 Automotive 19 1.5.6 Industrial Tooling and Other Applications 20 1.6 Economic/Environmental Benefits and Societal Impact 20 1.7 AM Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities 23 1.8 Looking Ahead 27 References 28 2 Basics of Metal Additive Manufacturing 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Main Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes 32 2.2.1 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) 32 2.2.2 Directed Energy Deposition (DED) 41 2.2.3 Binder Jetting (BJ) 49 2.2.4 Emerging Metal AM Processes 55 2.3 Main Process Parameters for Metal DED, PBF, and BJ 62 2.3.1 Main Output Parameters 64 2.3.2 Combined Thermal Energy Source Parameters PBF and DED 65 2.3.3 Beam Scanning Strategies and Parameters for PBF and DED 68 2.3.4 Powder Properties for PBF, DED, and BJ 71 2.3.5 Wire Properties for DED 76 2.3.6 Layer Thickness for PBF, DED, and BJ 77 2.3.7 Ambient Parameters for PBF, DED, and BJ 79 2.3.8 Geometry-Specific Parameters (PBF) 80 2.3.9 Support Structures for PBF 82 2.3.10 Binder Properties for BJ 82 2.3.11 Binder Saturation for BJ 84 2.4 Materials 85 2.4.1 Ferrous Alloys 86 2.4.2 Titanium Alloys 86 2.4.3 Nickel Alloys 86 2.4.4 Aluminum Alloys 86 References 87 3 Main Sub-Systems for Metal AM Machines 91 3.1 Introduction 91 3.2 System Setup of AM Machines 92 3.2.1 Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) 92 3.2.2 Laser Directed Energy Deposition (LDED) with Blown Powder Known as Laser Powder-Fed (LPF) 92 3.2.3 Binder Jetting (BJ) 93 3.3 Laser Basics: Important Parameters needed to be known for AM 93 3.3.1 Laser Theory 93 3.3.2 Laser Components 100 3.3.3 Continuous Vs. Pulsed Laser 101 3.3.4 Laser Types 102 3.3.5 Laser Beam Properties 109 3.4 Electron Beam Basics 114 3.4.1 Comparisons and Contrasts between Laser and Electron Beams 114 3.4.2 Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion Setup 114 3.4.3 Electron Beam Mechanism 116 3.4.4 Vacuum Chambers 119 3.5 Powder Feeders and Delivery Nozzles Technology 121 3.5.1 Classification of Powder Feeders 121 3.5.2 Powder Delivery Nozzles for DED 125 3.5.3 Powder Bed Delivery and Spreading Mechanisms 128 3.5.4 Wire Feed System 129 3.5.5 Positioning Devices and Scanners in Laser-Based AM 130 3.5.6 Print-Head in Binder Jetting 131 3.6 CAD File Formats 133 3.6.1 CAD/CAM Software 134 3.7 Summary 134 References 134 4 Directed Energy Deposition (DED): Physics and Modeling of Laser/Electron Beam Material Processing and DED 137 4.1 Introduction 137 4.2 Laser Material Interaction and the Associated Significant Parameters to Laser AM 140 4.2.1 Continuous Versus Pulsed/Modulated Lasers 141 4.2.2 Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission Factors 143 4.2.3 Dependencies of Absorption Factor to Wavelength and Temperature 144 4.2.4 Angle of Incidence 144 4.2.5 Surface Roughness Effects 147 4.2.6 Scattering Effects 147 4.3 E-beam Material Interaction 148 4.4 Power Density and Interaction Time for Various Heat Source-based Material Processing 149 4.5 Physical Phenomena and Governing Equations during DED 150 4.5.1 Absorption 150 4.5.2 Heat Conduction 151 4.5.3 Surface Convection and Radiation 152 4.5.4 Fluid Dynamics 153 4.5.5 Phase Transformation 156 4.5.6 Rapid Solidification 158 4.5.7 Thermal Stresses 158 4.5.8 Flow Field in DED with Injected Powder 159 4.6 Modeling of DED 161 4.6.1 Analytical Modeling: Basics, Simplified Equations, and Assumptions 161 4.6.2 Numerical Models for DED 165 4.6.3 Experimental-based Models: