Food Intake in Fish

Dominic Houlihan is at the University of Aberdeen, UK; Thierry Boujard is at INRA-IFREMER, Sainte Pee sur Nivelle, France; Malcolm Jobling is at NFH, University of Tromso, Norway.

"... active researchers and members of the aquaculture industry will find a personal copy invaluable." Fish and Fisheries "This important book, which has arisen out of a European Union COST programme, illustrates how insights into the biological and environmental factors that underlie the feeding responses of fish. Food Intake in Fish contains carefully edited contributions from internationally recognised scientists, providing a book that is an invaluable tool and reference to all those involved in aquaculture."International Aquafeed, November 2005

• List of Contributors vPreface xvii1 Feed Composition and Analysis 1Malcolm Jobling1.1 Introduction 11.2 Nutrient classes 11.2.1 Proteins 21.2.2 Lipids 41.2.3 Carbohydrates 61.2.4 Vitamins 91.2.5 Minerals 101.3 Analysis of feeds and feedstuffs 101.3.1 Protein analysis 131.3.2 Lipid analysis 141.3.3 Automated methods of analysis 141.4 Nutrient availability and feed evaluation 151.4.1 Nutrient absorption and digestibility 161.4.2 Growth trials and biological evaluation 181.5 Concluding comments 201.6 References 212 Feed Types, Manufacture and Ingredients 25Malcolm Jobling, Emidio Gomes and Jorges Dias2.1 Introduction 252.2 Feed types 252.3 Manufacture of dry feeds 262.3.1 Compressed pellets 292.3.2 Expanded pellets 292.3.3 Extruded pellets 292.3.4 Special types of feeds 302.4 Feed ingredients 312.4.1 Protein sources of animal origin 312.4.2 Single-cell proteins (SCPs) 332.4.3 Antinutritional factors (ANFs) 342.4.4 Plant protein sources 352.4.5 Lipid sources 362.4.6 Other ingredients 372.5 Feed characteristics and feed acceptability 372.6 Concluding comments 402.7 References 423 Techniques for Measuring Feed Intake 49Malcolm Jobling, Denis Covès, Børge Damsgård, Henrik R. Kristiansen, Juha Koskela, Thuridur E. Petursdottir, Sunil Kadri and Olafur Gudmundsson3.1 Introduction 493.2 Stomach contents analysis 493.2.1 Technical aspects 503.2.2 Applications and limitations 533.3 Dyestuffs and chemical markers 553.3.1 Technical aspects 553.3.2 Applications and limitations 573.4 Direct observation and video recording 583.4.1 Technical aspects 583.4.2 Applications and limitations 613.5 On-demand feeder with feed waste monitor 623.5.1 Technical aspects 623.5.2 Applications and limitations 633.6 X-Radiography 673.6.1 Technical aspects 673.6.2 Applications and limitations 693.7 General discussion 743.8 References 764 Experimental Design in Feeding Experiments 88Kari Ruohonen, Juhani Kettunen and Jonathan King4.1 Introduction 884.2 How does one design an experiment? 894.3 The structural model equation 924.4 Sums of squares 934.5 Evaluation of the experimental design 934.6 The compromise 954.7 Sensitivity analysis 974.8 Nuisance variables and ways of controlling them 984.9 Adding extra factors: why do it and what considerations are necessary? 994.10 Measuring individual feed intake – what are the benefits? 1004.11 What can be done when life becomes more complicated? 1034.12 Conclusions 1064.13 References 1065 Gustation and Feeding Behaviour 108Charles F. Lamb5.1 Introduction 1085.2 Peripheral gustatory sensation 1085.3 Gustatory pathways in the central nervous system 1145.4 Taste and feeding behaviours 1205.5 Conclusions 1235.6 Acknowledgements 1235.7 References 1246 Environmental Factors and Feed Intake: Mechanisms and Interactions 131Patrick Kestemont and Etienne Baras6.1 Introduction 1316.2 Abiotic factors 1326.2.1 Light 1326.2.2 Temperature 1356.2.3 Other physical factors 1376.2.4 Chemical factors 1386.3 Biotic factors 1416.3.1 Stocking density 1416.3.2 Social structure 1426.3.3 Predators 1436.3.4 Human disturbance 1446.4 Conclusions 1456.5 References 1457 Environmental Factors and Feed Intake: Rearing Systems 157Marie-Laure Bégout Anras, Marilyn Beauchaud, Jon-Erik Juell, Denis Covès and Jean-Paul Lagardère7.1 Introduction 1577.2 Feed intake of fish in pond systems 1587.2.1 Pond characteristics 1587.2.2 Variability of environmental factors 1597.2.3 Variations in feed intake in relation to pond environment 1627.3 Feed intake in fish cages 1667.3.1 Feed intake in a complex, semi-controlled environment 1667.3.2 Environmental variation and feeding activity 1677.3.3 Daily and seasonal feeding patterns 1707.3.4 Cage management practices 1707.4 Feed intake in tanks 1717.4.1 Tank culture systems 1727.4.2 Environmental variation and feeding activity 1737.4.3 Tank management practices and possibility of control 1757.5 Conclusions 1777.6 References 1778 Feeding Rhythms 189Juan Antonio Madrid, Thierry Boujard and F. Javier Sánchez-Vázquez8.1 Introduction 1898.2 Feeding rhythms: descriptions and examples 1918.2.1 Diel rhythms 1918.2.2 Tidal and lunar rhythms 1948.2.3 Annual rhythms 1958.3 Other sources of variability in feeding rhythms 1998.4 Regulation of feeding rhythms 2008.4.1 Endogenous control 2008.5 Conclusions 2088.6 References 2099 Feeding Anticipatory Activity 216F. Javier Sánchez-Vázquez and Juan Antonio Madrid9.1 Introduction 2169.1.1 What is feeding anticipatory activity? 2169.1.2 Biological significance 2179.1.3 Characteristics of feeding anticipatory activity 2189.1.4 Behavioural variables showing feeding anticipatory activity 2199.2 Models to explain anticipation to feeding 2219.2.1 External versus internal origin 2219.2.2 Self-sustained feeding-entrainable oscillator (FEO) 2229.3 Synchronising stimulus for feeding entrainment 2249.4 Applications 2259.4.1 Temporal integration 2259.4.2 Anticipation of meals as an indicator of fish appetite 2279.4.3 Distribution of fish 2279.5 Conclusions 2289.6 References 22910 Effects of Feeding Time on Feed Intake and Growth 233Valérie Bolliet, Mezian Azzaydi and Thierry Boujard10.1 Introduction 23310.2 Effect of feeding time on growth 23410.2.1 Finding the optimal feeding time: a problem of dualism? 23610.3 Effect of feeding time on feed intake and nutrient utilisation 23710.4 Mechanisms involved in mediating the effects of feeding time on nutrient utilisation 23710.4.1 Effect of feeding time on endocrine cycles 24010.5 Feeding time and flesh quality 24110.6 Conclusions 24210.7 References 24411 Effects of Nutritional Factors and Feed Characteristics on Feed Intake 250Manuel de la Higuera11.1 Introduction 25011.2 Physical characteristics and feed intake 25011.3 Dietary nutrients and sources affecting feed intake 25111.4 Nutrient selection 25511.5 Feeding stimulants 25711.5.1 Feeding stimulants and fish nutrition 26011.6 Deterrent compounds 26111.7 Conclusions: feed acceptance and palatability studies 26211.8 References 26212 Regulation of Food Intake by Neuropeptides and Hormones 269Nuria de Pedro and Björn Thrandur Björnsson12.1 Introduction 26912.2 Inhibitory peptides 26912.2.1 Corticotrophin-releasing factor 26912.2.2 Bombesin 27112.2.3 Cholecystokinin 27212.3 Stimulatory peptides 27412.3.1 Galanin 27412.3.2 Opioid peptides 27512.3.3 Neuropeptide Y 27812.4 Hormones 28012.4.1 Growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) 28012.4.2 Hormones regulating metabolism 28212.5 Conclusions 28412.6 Acknowledgements 28412.7 References 28513 Physiological Effects of Feeding 297Chris Carter, Dominic Houlihan, Anders Kiessling, Francoise Médale and Malcolm Jobling13.1 Introduction 29713.2 Different methods of feeding 29813.3 Short-term effects of a meal 29913.4 Tissue metabolic physiology 30013.5 Whole-animal metabolic physiology 30313.5.1 Respiration and excretion 30313.5 2 Protein turnover 30513.6 Long-term effects of food intake 30513.6.1 Protein intake, synthesis and growth 30713.7 Amino acid flux model: food intake and amino acid flux 30813.8 Biochemical correlates of food intake 30913.9 Effects on body composition and growth efficiency 31113.10 Physiological effects and the regulation of food intake 31613.11 References 31914 Feeding Management 332Anders Alanärä, Sunil Kadri and Mihalis Paspatis14.1 Introduction 33214.2 Feed planning and production plans 33214.3 Estimating growth 33714.4 Variation in feed intake 33814.4.1 Temporal variation 33914.4.2 Seasonal variation 34014.5 Distribution of feed 34114.5.1 Number of meals and feeding rate 34114.5.2 Diel timing of feeding 34214.5.3 Feed dispersal 34314.6 Feeding techniques 34414.6.1 Hand-feeding 34414.6.2 Fixed feed ration systems 34514.6.3 Demand feeding systems 34514.6.4 The combined use of feeding techniques 34714.7 References 34715 Nutrient Partitioning and the Influence of Feed Composition on Body Composition 354Malcolm Jobling15.1 Introduction 35415.2 Morphometrics and relationships among chemical components 35515.3 Patterns of lipid deposition and storage 35815.4 Temporal changes in body composition 36115.5 Muscle (fillet) composition and factors that influence ‘quality’ 36515.6 Concluding comments 37115.7 References 371Glossary of Terms 377Index 415