A K Sharma – författare

Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is commonly performed by examining cells and tissues by sectioning and staining, followed by examination under a light microscope or electron microscope. Histological studies may be conducted via tissue culture, where live cells can be isolated and maintained in a proper environment outside the body for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains. Histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine. Histopathology, the microscopic study of diseased tissue, is an important tool in anatomical pathology, since accurate diagnosis of cancer and other diseases usually requires histopathological examination of samples. Trained medical doctors, frequently board-certifiedas pathologists, are the personnel who perform histopathological examination and provide diagnostic information based on their observations. The book helps the student in overall self assessment and prompts him to practice and review the gap areas in his learning process.

Cell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology research encompasses both the great diversity of single-celled organisms like bacteria and protozoa, as well as the many specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important to the fields of cell and molecular biology as well as to biomedical fields such as cancer research and developmental biology. This book covers all the aspects of this subject. It is hoped, the book will be found to be of immense value to the students of this subject. Contents: • Cell Signalling and Gene Transcription • DNA Replication • RNA Extraction • Human Chromosomes • Structural Organization of the Nucleus • Functions of Noncoding DNA • Chemical Environment of Cell • Implications of the RNA World • Enzyme Structure • From Organic Molecules to Protocells

During the past 40 years, the importance of the microbial cell surface in biology, medicine, industry, and ecology has been increasingly recognized. Because they constitute the frontier between the cells and their environment, microbial cell walls play several key functions: supporting the internal turgor pressure of the cell, protecting the cytoplasm from the outer environment, imparting shape to the organism, acting as a molecular sieve, controlling molecular recognition and cell adhesion, and being the target of antibiotics. These functions have major consequences in biotechnology (wastewater treatment, bioremediation, and immobilized cells in reactors), industrial systems (biofouling and contamination) and medicine (interactions of pathogens with animal host tissues, accumulation on implants and prosthetic devices). This emphasizes the need to develop new techniques for probing the structure, properties and interactions of microbial surfaces. Traditionally, probing of the cell surface architecture relies on transmission and scanning electron microscopy techniques. The present book is a concise and up-to-date work including all aspects of this subject. Every effort has been made in the representation manner in this book so that the students do not get confused while going through this book.

Chemogenomics is the systematic screening of targeted chemical libraries of small molecules against individual drug target families with the ultimate goal of identification of novel drugs and drug targets. Typically some members of a target library have been well characterized where both the function has been determined and compounds that modulate the function of those targets (ligands in the case of receptors, inhibitors of enzymes, or blockers of ion channels) have been identified. Other members of the target family may have unknown function with no known ligands and hence are classified as orphan receptors. By identifying screening hits that modulate the activity of the less well characterized members of the target family, the function of these novel targets can be elucidated. Furthermore the hits for these targets can be used as a starting point for drug discovery. Chemical genetics is analogous to classicalgenetics where random mutations are introduced in organisms, the phenotype of these mutants is observed, and finally the specific gene mutation (genotype) that produced that phenotype is identified. In chemical genetics, phenotypic screening of chemical libraries is used to identify drug targets (forward chemical genetics) or to validate those targets in experimental models of disease (reverse chemical genetics). In the field of drug discovery, chemical biology is usually defined as the screening of chemical libraries of small molecules in biological systems such as cell lines or whole animals to identify compounds that cause a desirable change in phenotype. This strategy which employs phenotypic screening to identify starting points for drug discovery is also known as classical pharmacology, forward pharmacology, or phenotypic drug discovery (PDD). This encyclopaedia explores innovative ideas in this subject.

Chemogenomics is the systematic screening of targeted chemical libraries of small molecules against individual drug target families with the ultimate goal of identification of novel drugs and drug targets. Typically some members of a target library have been well characterized where both the function has been determined and compounds that modulate the function of those targets (ligands in the case of receptors, inhibitors of enzymes, or blockers of ion channels) have been identified. Other members of the target family may have unknown function with no known ligands and hence are classified as orphan receptors. By identifying screening hits that modulate the activity of the less well characterized members of the target family, the function of these novel targets can be elucidated. Furthermore the hits for these targets can be used as a starting point for drug discovery. Chemical genetics is analogous to classicalgenetics where random mutations are introduced in organisms, the phenotype of these mutants is observed, and finally the specific gene mutation (genotype) that produced that phenotype is identified. In chemical genetics, phenotypic screening of chemical libraries is used to identify drug targets (forward chemical genetics) or to validate those targets in experimental models of disease (reverse chemical genetics). In the field of drug discovery, chemical biology is usually defined as the screening of chemical libraries of small molecules in biological systems such as cell lines or whole animals to identify compounds that cause a desirable change in phenotype. This strategy which employs phenotypic screening to identify starting points for drug discovery is also known as classical pharmacology, forward pharmacology, or phenotypic drug discovery (PDD). This encyclopaedia explores innovative ideas in this subject.

Stem cells are mother cells that have the potential to become any type of cell in the body. One of the main characteristics of stem cells is their ability to self-renew or multiply while maintaining the potential to develop into other types of cells. Stem cells can become cells of the blood, heart, bones, skin, muscles, brain etc. Clones are organisms that are exact genetic copies. Every single bit of their DNA is identical. Clones can happen naturally—identical twins are just one of many examples. Or they can be made in the lab. Below, find out how natural identical twins are similar to and different from clones made through modern cloning technologies. Many people first heard of cloning when Dolly the Sheep showed up on the scene in 1997. Artificial cloning technologies have been around for much longer than Dolly, though. The term cloning is used by scientists to describe many different processes that involve making duplicates of biological material. In most cases, isolated genes or cells are duplicated for scientific study, and no new animal results. The experiment that led to the cloning of Dolly the sheep in 1997 was different: It used a cloning technique called somatic cell nuclear transfer and resulted in an animal that was a genetic twin — although delayed in time — of an adult sheep.This technique can also be used to produce an embryo from which cells called embryonic stem (ES) cells could be extracted to use in research into potential therapies for a wide variety of diseases. There are two ways to make an exact genetic copy of an organism in a lab: artificial embryo twinning and somatic cell nuclear transfer. This encyclopaedia will be an essential reading for anyone interested in cell biology or introductory biology.

Clones are organisms that are exact genetic copies. Every single bit of their DNA is identical. Clones can happen naturally—identical twins are just one of many examples. Or they can be made in the lab. Below, find out how natural identical twins are similar to and different from clones made through modern cloning technologies. Many people first heard of cloning when Dolly the Sheep showed up on the scene in 1997. Artificial cloning technologies have been around for much longer than Dolly, though. The term cloning is used by scientists to describe many different processes that involve making duplicates of biological material. In most cases, isolated genes or cells are duplicated for scientific study, and no new animal results. The experiment that led to the cloning of Dolly the sheep in 1997 was different: It used a cloning technique called somatic cell nuclear transfer and resulted in an animal that was a genetic twin — although delayed in time — of an adult sheep. This technique can also be used to produce an embryo from which cells called embryonic stem (ES) cells could be extracted to use in research into potential therapies for a wide variety of diseases. There are two ways to make an exact genetic copy of an organism in a lab: artificial embryo twinning and somatic cell nuclear transfer. This encyclopaedia will be an essential reading for anyone interested in cell biology or introductory biology.

Labour Economics as a paper is being taught at M.A.Econ.,M.B.A. and other Management Courses at various universities and institutions. This book is designed as an introductory text to the above paper, encompassing vital information on all pertinent aspects. Thus the, material presented here would be of interest as well as of great use to the students, teachers and professionals in the field. The major topics dealt in this book are - Introduction to Labour Market Employment Policy; Concepts of Wages; Methods of wages Payments; Wages Under Various Market Models; Differences in Wages; Structure of Trade Union; Collective Bargaining; Industrial Dispute and Industrial Peace; Social Security Measures in India; Workers Participation in Management! Industrial Discipline; Rural Women and Child Labour; Labour Policy of Government; Trade Unions Act1926; The Factories Act 1948 etc.

Chemogenomics is the systematic screening of targeted chemical libraries of small molecules against individual drug target families with the ultimate goal of identification of novel drugs and drug targets. Typically some members of a target library have been well characterized where both the function has been determined and compounds that modulate the function of those targets (ligands in the case of receptors, inhibitors of enzymes, or blockers of ion channels) have been identified. Other members of the target family may have unknown function with no known ligands and hence are classified as orphan receptors. By identifying screening hits that modulate the activity of the less well characterized members of the target family, the function of these novel targets can be elucidated. Furthermore the hits for these targets can be used as a starting point for drug discovery. Chemical genetics is analogous to classicalgenetics where random mutations are introduced in organisms, the phenotype of these mutants is observed, and finally the specific gene mutation (genotype) that produced that phenotype is identified. In chemical genetics, phenotypic screening of chemical libraries is used to identify drug targets (forward chemical genetics) or to validate those targets in experimental models of disease (reverse chemical genetics). In the field of drug discovery, chemical biology is usually defined as the screening of chemical libraries of small molecules in biological systems such as cell lines or whole animals to identify compounds that cause a desirable change in phenotype. This strategy which employs phenotypic screening to identify starting points for drug discovery is also known as classical pharmacology, forward pharmacology, or phenotypic drug discovery (PDD). This encyclopaedia explores innovative ideas in this subject.

A unique introduction to the design, analysis, and presentation of scientific projects, this is an essential textbook for students in science and mathematics. The textbook gives an overview of the main methods used in scientific research, including hypothesis testing, the measurement of functional relationships, and observational research. It describes important features of experimental design, such as the control of errors, instrument calibration, data analysis, laboratory safety, and the treatment of human subjects. Important concepts in statistics are discussed, focusing on standard error, the meaning of p values, and use of elementary statistical tests. The textbook introduces some of the main ideas in mathematical modelling to differential equations. It also provides guidelines on accessing scientific literature, and preparing scientific papers and presentations.

Clones are organisms that are exact genetic copies. Every single bit of their DNA is identical. Clones can happen naturally—identical twins are just one of many examples. Or they can be made in the lab. Below, find out how natural identical twins are similar to and different from clones made through modern cloning technologies. Many people first heard of cloning when Dolly the Sheep showed up on the scene in 1997. Artificial cloning technologies have been around for much longer than Dolly, though. The term cloning is used by scientists to describe many different processes that involve making duplicates of biological material. In most cases, isolated genes or cells are duplicated for scientific study, and no new animal results. The experiment that led to the cloning of Dolly the sheep in 1997 was different: It used a cloning technique called somatic cell nuclear transfer and resulted in an animal that was a genetic twin — although delayed in time — of an adult sheep. This technique can also be used to produce an embryo from which cells called embryonic stem (ES) cells could be extracted to use in research into potential therapies for a wide variety of diseases. There are two ways to make an exact genetic copy of an organism in a lab: artificial embryo twinning and somatic cell nuclear transfer. This encyclopaedia will be an essential reading for anyone interested in cell biology or introductory biology.

Contents: Foreword,Part I Evolutionary botany-Palaeozoi, Mesozoic, Cenozoic , Recent, Part II Biostratigraphy Palaeozoic, Permo-triassic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic.