How Learning Works

Marsha C. Lovett, PhD, is Vice Provost for Teaching and Learning Innovation and a Teaching Professor of Psychology at Carnegie Mellon University. Michael W. Bridges, PhD, is Executive Director of the University Center for Teaching and Learning at the University of Pittsburgh. Michele DiPietro, PhD, is Executive Director of the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning and a Professor in the School of Data Science and Analytics at Kennesaw State University. Susan A. Ambrose, DA, is retired from Northeastern University, where she was Senior Vice Chancellor for Educational Innovation and a Professor of Education and History. Marie K. Norman, PhD, is Director of the Innovative Design for Education and Assessment (IDEA) Lab and Associate Professor of Medicine and Clinical and Translational Science at the University of Pittsburgh.

• List of Figures, Tables, and Exhibits xiForeword to the First Edition: Applying the Science of Learning to College TeachingRichard E. Mayer xiiiAcknowledgments xviiAbout the Authors xixPreface to the Second Edition xxiiiIntroduction Bridging Learning Research and Teaching Practice 11 Why Do Students’ Identities and Stages of Development Matter for Learning? 92 How Does Students’ Prior Knowledge Affect Their Learning? 393 How Does the Way Students Organize Knowledge Affect Their Learning? 644 What Factors Motivate Students to Learn? 845 How Do Students Develop Mastery? 1066 What Kinds of Practice and Feedback Enhance Learning? 1307 Why Does Course Climate Matter for Student Learning? 1628 How Do Students Become Self- Directed Learners? 187Conclusion Applying the Eight Principles to Ourselves 212Appendices Appendix A What Are Instructor Self- Assessments/Reflections and How Can We Use Them? 219Appendix B What Are Ground Rules and How Can We Use Them? 223Appendix C What Are Student Self- Assessments and How Can We Use Them? 226Appendix D What Are Concept Maps and How Can We Use Them? 229Appendix E What Are Rubrics and How Can We Use Them? 232Appendix F What Are Learner Checklists and How Can We Use Them? 242Appendix G What Are Learning Objectives and How Can We Use Them? 244Appendix H What Are Active Learning Strategies and How Can We Use Them? 247Appendix I What Are Reader Responses/Peer Reviews and How Can We Use Them? 250Appendix J What Are Exam Wrappers and How Can We Use Them? 252References 255Name Index 287Subject Index 299