Transforming America

AvAnthony Stranges

Häftad, Engelska, 2019

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Beskrivning

An introductory survey that examines and promotes critical thinking about the origin, development, and impact of science in America from colonial times to the present. This text is the first historical survey of science in America. The eleven chapters examine eleven themes that have dominated the emergence of science in America.

Produktinformation

Utgivningsdatum:2019-12-20
Mått:216 x 279 x 42 mm
Vikt:1 909 g
Format:Häftad
Språk:Engelska
Antal sidor:277
Upplaga:3
Förlag:Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co ,U.S.
ISBN:9781792421167

Utforska kategorier

Samhälle och kultur inom Samhälle och politik
Sociologi inom Samhälle och politik

Innehållsförteckning

PREFACE I. INTRODUCTORYII. OBJECTIVES OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN AMERICACHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN AMERICA: ITS LANGUAGE, OBJECTIVES, AND SCOPE I. INTRODUCTIONII. SCIENCE, ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY, AND THE HISTORY OF SCIENCEWhat is science, what is engineering, what is technology?What is the history of science?Four good reasons that justify studying the history of science and make it relevantWhen history and science textbooks include history of science, how do they present the history of science?Comparing the methods and objectives of the sciences and the humanitiesValidity of the distinctions made between science and the humanities: objectivity, subjectivityPredictive models and laws of natureWhat is a scientific theory and does a scientist discover or create a theory?III. SCIENCE AND RELIGIONSupernatural or natural causes, the anthropic principleCritics of the anthropic principleNaturalist explanations of intelligent lifeIV. THREE DIFFERENT APPROACHES USED IN STUDYING THE HISTORY OF SCIENCEInternal and external history of scienceWhig historyScientific revolutionsV. PHILOSOPHIES OF SCIENCEEpistemology and ontologyInduction and deductionIdealism and realismPositivism, materialism, and empiricismRationalismPopper's falsificationTwo schools of thought on how scientific discovery or invention occurs: scientific method or non-scientific methodVI. CHAPTER THEMES AND CHRONOLGY OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN AMERICAVII. OTHER THEMESExternal and internal resistance to new scientific ideasTransfer of scientific ideas to other disciplinesPragmatismSocial DarwinismScience and human values: the impact of science and technology on societyVIII. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 2: EUROPEAN, ASIAN, AND NATIVE AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND I. INTRODUCTIONTransitions in scienceDiscovery of the New WorldII. EUROPEAN BACKGROUND TO COLONIAL SCIENCEAncient scientific beliefs on matter, cosmology, and medicine to the fall of Rome in 476Science in the middle ages 476-1400Renaissance science 1400-1600Scientific revolution 1600sScience in the enlightenment 1700s - early 1800sIII. SCIENCE IN THE EASTChronology and contacts with the WestChinese science and engineeringJapanese science and engineeringHindu scienceIV. SCIENCE IN PRE-COLUMBIAN NORTH AMERICAOrigin of America's inhabitantsNorth American Indian cosmology and astronomyV. SCIENCE IN MESOAMERICAOur changing perception of the Mayan worldMayan societyMayan science, mathematics, and engineeringAztec (Mexica or Tenochca) science and societyInca science and societyConcluding thoughts on MesoamericaVI. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 3: COLONIAL AND EARLY AMERICAN EDUCATION, SCIENCE, AND TECHNOLOGY TO 1800 I. INTRODUCTIONNew World colonies: education, science, and technologyAmerican colonies: education, science, and technologyBritish (American) colonial and early American republic education, science, and technologyII. SPANISH COLONIAL AMERICAExploratory expeditionsScience and technologyAstronomy and physics: navigation, Bogota Observatory, boiling point-pressure relationAgriculture and botany: food and medicineAnthropology: study of language and cultureMetallurgy: the extraction of metalsEstablishment of universities, hospitals, and printing pressesIII. FRENCH COLONIAL AMERICA: CANADAFrench explorations in North America: Quebec, Montreal, Louisiana TerritoryEarly industries: grain, lumber, and ironEducation, science, and medicine-hospitalsIV. BRITISH COLONIAL AMERICAFirst coloniesDutch-British transition in the coloniesColonial population and organization: three kinds of coloniesImportance of religion in colonial life: Deism, Great Awakening, Salem witch trialsColonial and early American education: organization, curriculum, objectivesElementary or reading and writing schoolsLatin grammar schoolsAcademies 1750-1860Colleges: objectives, curriculum, cost, facultyNatural history museumsV. COLONIAL AND EARLY AMERICAN SCIENCEIntroductoryJefferson's contributions to American scienceAstronomy: advancing the Newtonian mechanical philosophyBotany and natural history: continuing the Linnaean classificationChemistry: quantitative study of chemical identity and the composition of matterMedicine: practice of heroic medicineHealth, medical education, instruments, and beliefsRush, heroic medicine, curing blackness to end slaverySmallpox and inoculation: Mather and BoylstonVaccination replaces inoculation: Jenner and PasteurLater developments in vaccinationPhysics: introduction of fluid theories, advances in electrical theory and applicationBackgroundFluid theories of electricity: Du Fay and FranklinTwo later developments: Coulomb's law quantifies electrical force and the voltaic pile (battery)Beginning of thermodynamics: theories of combustion and heatTheories of combustion: phlogiston and oxygen theoriesTheories of heat: caloric theory, Rumford and the mechanical theory or matter in motionEnd of the caloric theoryScientists, racism, and slaveryVI. COLONIAL AND EARLY AMERICAN TECHNOLOGYMonopolies, land grants, patents, and natural resources contributed to the development of colonial and early American industryIndustries established and developedGlassmakingPrinting industryIron industry: three stages of development, small furnace, large blast furnace, plantation systemSteel: two methods of productionIndigo productionChemical industry: DuPont and gunpowder productionVII. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 4: TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION OF AMERICA 1780s TO 1850s I. INTRODUCTIONThree stages of the American technological transformation 1785-1855Energy transitions: from wood to coalII. ECONOMIC CYCLES AND SOCIAL-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTSCorrelation of economic cycles for the period 1785-1855 with the three stages of technological transformationSocial-political developmentsIII. TRANSPORTATION ADVANCES: ROADS, WATER, AND RAILSRoad transportationWater transportationSavery, Newcomen, and Watt: introduction of single-action atmospheric-steam engines and double action (reciprocating) steam enginesImpact of Watt's double-action reciprocating steam engineSteam engines and steamboatsSteamboat construction in the United States: Fitch, Rumsey, and Fulton, a tragic trioUnited States and trans-Atlantic steamboat travelLater nineteenth-century advances in ship construction: screw propeller, ironclads, steam turbines, and diesel enginesCanal building eraRailroad eraEngineering advances that contributed to railroad growth: rail flange, steam engine, T-rail, semaphore, airbrake, and automatic couplerIntroduction of standard track widthFederal land grants 1850-71IV. GOVERNMENT PROMOTION OF THE ECONOMY, PATENT SYSTEMFederal government intervened or acted in three ways, through the use of tariffs, contracts, and patents, to promote domestic economic and industrial growthEvolution of the United States patent systemEstablishing a currencyHenry Clay and the American SystemV. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN INDUSTRYGeneral characteristics of technological development, craft shop and industrial factorySignificant inventions in the three stages of technological transformation: 1785-1825, 1825-40, and 1840-55Whitney's cotton ginIron and steel plows: Wood and DeereGrain reaper: Hussey and McCormickColt's revolver or repeating pistolGoodyear's vulcanization of rubberTelegraph: Henry and MorseSewing machine: Howe and SingerRotary and web presses: HoeFinancing industrial growthVI. INDUSTRY, LABOR, AND CITIESRise of citiesUrban living and working conditions 1825-40VII. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 5: SCIENCE THROUGH THE CIVIL WAR: FROM AMATEURISM TO PROFESSIONALISMI. INTRODUCTIONEducation, medicine, and scienceSociety, culture, economics, and politicsII. EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTSElementary and secondary education to 1860Massachusetts the educational leaderSpread of public educationAcademiesNormal or teacher education schoolsWomen's education and educatorsCollegesSize, number, and purpose of collegesCurriculum, laboratories, libraries, and enrollmentsWomen and collegeIII. MEDICAL THOUGHT AND PRACTICEEstablishment medicine, its methodology: deductivist and inductivist, statisticalEducationPreceptorial, proprietary and university-affiliated medical colleges or schoolsMedical tuition, curriculumNon-establishment medicine, the medical sects: Thomsonians, Grahamites, hydropaths, and homeopathsProfessionalization of medicine and dentistryAmerican Medical Association: requirements and restrictionsDental colleges, American Dental AssociationAdvances in physiology: William Beaumont and the digestive processAbortion issueAdvances in anesthesiaEarly anestheticsControversy over the discovery and use of ether as an anesthetic: Wells, Morton, Jackson, and LongChloroform as anesthesiaBenefits of anesthesia, local and general anesthesiaCivil War medicineMedical doctors and medical advances, sanitation, anesthesia, plastic surgeryNursing emerged as a profession during the Civil WarEstablishment of hospitalsEmbalmingIV. ADVANCES IN SCIENCEChemistryAmerican contributors to chemistry: Silliman, Hare, Cooke, and othersGeologyFirst geological surveysGeological schools: catastrophism and uniformitarianism, two rival nineteenth-century beliefs on what caused changes in Earth's strataAstronomyPhysicsMotor principle and electromagnetic induction: FaradayMeasurement of electricityHenry's overlooked contributionsMathematicsV. ESTABLISHMENT OF SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS AND PROGRAMSEuropean situationScience education in the United StatesScience in the collegesMorrill Land Grant Act of 2 July 1862Agricultural experiment stationsVI. CONTINUING THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF AMERICAN SCIENCEFranklin InstituteNaval ObservatorySmithsonian InstitutionAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)National Academy of SciencesOther signs of increasing professionalizationVII. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 6: DARWIN COMES TO AMERICA I. INTRODUCTIONII. HOW OLD IS EARTHWhat did earlier cultures or societies believe about the origin of the universe?Biblical genealogy and the age of EarthArcheological evidenceSalinity and thermodynamic methods of dating Earth's ageRadioactive dating methodsUranium datingCarbon-14 datingIII. HOW OLD IS HUMANITYIV. ARGUMENT FOR DESIGN IN THE UNIVERSEWilliam Paley's argumentV. EARLY THEORIES OF EVOLUTIONGeorges Louis BuffonAge of EarthDegeneration of animalsErasmus DarwinJean Baptiste LamarckRecent LamarckiansVI. GEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS: CATASTROPHISTS AND UNIFORMITARIANSCatastrophists: Vulcanists and NeptunistsUniformitarians: Hutton and LyellVII. EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTIONCharles DarwinProponents of natural selection: Wallace, Huxley, Haeckel, WeismannOpponents of natural selection: OwenVIII. AMERICAN DEBATE OVER DARWINISM: LOUIS AGASSIZ AND ASA GRAYRacial issue and debate on the origin of the races: monogenesis vs. polygenesisEvolutionary issue and debate: Agassiz and GrayMore American anti-Darwinists: Silliman, Dana, HitchcockAmerican evolutionists: Marsh and CopeIX. BEGINNING OF GENETICS: SOLVING THE INHERITANCE PROBLEMGregor Mendel and the laws of inheritanceRediscovery of Mendel's experiments and the introduction of the Punnet SquareX. A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION: PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUMXI. EVIDENCE SUPPORTING EVOLUTIONPaleontology: the fossil recordComparative anatomy: common structuresBiogeography: distribution of speciesEmbryology: similarities during developmentEvidence from molecular biologyCreationism and the evidence for evolutionOne more proofXII. HOW MANY SPECIES INHABIT EARTHXIII. EVOLUTION AND RELIGIONTraditionalistsModernistsNaturalistsScopes Trial: Dayton, Tennessee, 10-21 July 1925Creationism todayScientists and atheismXIV. CONCLUSIONGEOLOGICAL CHARTSREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 7: MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND THE DOUBLE HELIX I. INTRODUCTIONII. BEGINNING OF GENETICSDevelopments in cell theoryChromosome studiesIII. DISCOVERY OF PROTEINS AND NUCLEIC ACIDSProtein analysesDiscovery, analysis, and chemical composition of the two nucleic acids DNA and RNALevene's tetranucleotide structure of DNAIV. USE OF X-RAYS IN ESTABLISHING MOLECULAR STRUCTUREV. CHEMICAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STRUCTURE OF DNA AND RNA: EVIDENCE THAT NUCLEIC ACID WAS THE GENE AND THE INFORMATION CARRIERBacteriophage compositionDetermining the genetic material: Avery, Hershey and ChaseChromatography separation techniquesInvention of column chromatographyInvention of paper chromatographyVI. SOLVING THE STRUCTURE OF DNA: X-RAY DIFFRACTION, MODELS, AND THE GENETIC CODEChargaff's paper chromatography breakthroughPauling's DNA structureX-ray studies on DNA at King's College, University of LondonWatson, Crick, and the double helix structure of DNANew developments in molecular biology: DNA synthesis, protein structureProposing a genetic codeRole of RNA in understanding the genetic code: transcription and translationBreaking the genetic code: Nirenberg and KhoranaBeginning of genetic engineering or DNA sequencingVII. HUMAN GENOME PROJECTVIII. DEVELOPMENTS IN CLONING AND STEM CELLSWhat is cloning?Ethical implications of cloning and stem cellsIX. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 8: TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION OF AMERICA 1860-1900 I. INTRODUCTIONII. AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION CAME ABOUT RAPIDLYSix factors that contributed to the American technological transformation in the last half of the nineteenth centuryThe professionalization of science continuedIII. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE AND ASIA 1870-1914IV. MAJOR TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE UNITED STATESSteelMajor contributors to the development of the large-scale steel industry, Kelly, Bessemer, and MushetSignificance of Kelly, Bessemer, and HolleyAn improved steelmaking process: the regenerative open-hearth furnaceMajor furnace advancesUnited States steel production and cost and effect on the environmentAluminum: Hall and Héroult, a case of nearly simultaneous inventionPetroleumOrigin of petroleum, early use as a medicinal and as an illuminantFirst large petroleum discoveryNineteenth-century methods of finding and drilling for petroleumPetroleum storage and refiningPetroleum discoveries after TitusvilleThermal and high-pressure catalytic cracking of crude petroleumUnited States petroleum reservesCommunications industryTelephoneElectrical industryEdison's contribution to the telephoneLight bulbEstablishing the General Electric CompanyWestinghouse and the introduction of alternating currentEdison's other inventionsPhonographMotion picture machineSpirit communication machineA brief look at the emerging American chemical industrySalt industryBorax industrySulfur industryElectrolytic industry: Dow Chemical CompanyPlastics industryAutomobile industryExternal combustion engine: steam-powered; internal combustion: gasoline and dieselpowered vehiclesAmerican automobile organizersV. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: THE OTHER SIDE OF URBANIZATION, MODERNIZATION, AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENTIntroductionWater pollution and the problem of waste disposal in the United States: the three stages of developmentBackgroundWater distribution and sewer systemsSlow and rapid sand filtration systemsChlorine treatmentIndustrial water pollutionAir pollutionAcid rain and smokeCottrell and the electrostatic precipitator: the first industrial environmentalistVI. INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZING METHODS OR TECHNIQUES AND INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZERSGeneral characteristics of major industriesLeading industrial organizersVII. ORIGINS OF INDUSTRIALISTS AND ENTREPRENEURS WHO DOMINATED AMERICAN INDUSTRYVIII. REACTION TO THE GROWTH AND CONSOLIDATION OF INDUSTRYPublic reactionPolitical reaction from state and federal governments: regulation of railroads and corporationsRegulation of railroadsRegulation of corporationsIX. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 9: RECONSTRUCTION AND GILDED AGE EDUCATION AND SCIENCE I. INTRODUCTIONII. REVOLUTION IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1870-1910The new university era and its leadersSeveral factors contributed to university growthGoals of the new universitiesEffect of the education revolution on the universityConclusion: the old college versus the new universityIII. POST-CIVIL WAR SCIENCEElectromagnetic theory of radiation: Maxwell, and HertzElectricity and magnetismDevelopment of the electromagnetic theory of radiation: MaxwellDemonstrating the transmission of electromagnetic waves (wireless or radio transmission): did the waves really exist?AstronomyProgress and growthContributions of Rowland and HalePhotographing the stars and planets: Pickerings, Lowell, and TombaughClassifying stellar spectra: Cannon, Maury, and Leavitt, three women astronomersStellar evolution and stellar distances: Hertzsprung-Russell color-brightness relationBeginning of aeronautics: balloons, gliders, and powered dirigiblesEarly attempts at flightFirst ascensions: hot air filled balloons and hydrogen gas filled balloons: Montgolfiers and CharlesPurpose of balloon flightsRigid-bodied powered dirigibles: ZeppelinsHeavier-than-air craft: gliders, Bernoulli's principle, Cayley, Lilienthal, ChanuteHeavier-than-air craft: poweredBritish aircraft: Henson and Stringfellow, MaximUnited States aircraft: Langley, Wright BrothersUnited States Army flight testsControversy with the Smithsonian: Wrights versus CurtissOther flight-related developments: trans-Atlantic flight, aeronautical leadershipPhysics: measuring the speed of lightCelestial methods: Roemer and BradleyTerrestrial methods: Fizeau, Foucault, Cornu, and MichelsonMichelson's later measurements of light's speedChemistryMolecular compositionAtomic weight standardsMolecular structurePeriodic tableChemical instrumentationThermodynamics: the study of heatCarnot, the heat engine and Carnot cycleOther thermodynamic developments: work and the mechanical equivalent of heatThree laws of thermodynamicsKelvin: temperature scale, definition of kinetic energyContributions of J. Willard GibbsKinetic-molecular theory of gasesIV. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 10: TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICAL SCIENCE I. INTRODUCTIONII. FUNDAMENTAL BREAKTHROUGHS IN PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRYDiscovery of cathode raysSerendipitous discovery of x-raysSerendipitous discovery of radioactivityDivisible atomQuantum theory 1900Einstein and the new scientific worldPhotoelectric effect March 1905Brownian movement May 1905Special theory of relativity June 1905Consequences of the special theoryMass-energy equivalence September1905Verification of the special theoryGeneral theory of relativity 1915, 1916Verification of the general theoryString and superstring theory of gravityIII. SEARCH FOR PRECISE ATOMIC WEIGHTSIV. ELECTRON: THE FUNDAMENTAL ELECTRIC CHARGEV. THEORIES OF ATOMIC STRUCTUREMulti-electron atomRutherford and the nuclear atomEstablishment of atomic numbersBohr's theory of the hydrogen atom: Sommerfeld's and Pauli's contributionsVI. CHEMICAL BONDElectrostatic theories of the chemical bondG.N. Lewis and the shared electron pair chemical bondBiographicCubic atom and shared electron pair chemical bondIntroduction of electron dot or Lewis formulasLangmuir's contributions to valence theoryVII. COMPOSITION OF THE NUCLEUSProton and proton-electron theoryNeutron and the proton-neutron theoryLater developmentsVIII. DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTUM MECHANICS: MATRIX MECHANICS AND WAVE MECHANICSBackgroundElectron duality: wave or particleMatrix mechanicsWave mechanicsHund's ruleHeisenberg's uncertainty principleApplication of quantum mechanics to the chemical bondValence bond methodMolecular orbital theoryIX. SPECTROSCOPY AND CHEMICAL BONDSX. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEUSXI. SEARCH FOR FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLESFundamental particle physicsDiscovery and classification of quarksFour forcesXII. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSCHAPTER 11: ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT: CONFLICT OR COMPATIBILITY I. INTRODUCTIONII. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN NUCLEAR FISSION REACTIONSFirst transmutationsDiscovery of the neutronCyclotron and artificial radioactivityFermi and neutron bombardmentNuclear fission comes to the United StatesIII. MANHATTAN PROJECT: CONTROLLING NUCLEAR FISSION AND RACING TO BUILD AN ATOMIC BOMBOrganization and early researchConstruction of the first atomic pilesConstruction of the first atomic bombsControversy over dropping the atomic bombIV. GERMAN, SOVIET, BRITISH, AND JAPANESE ATOMIC BOMB PROJECTSGermany's atomic bomb projectBritain's atomic bomb project: tube alloys projectJapan's atomic bomb projectSoviet Russia's atomic bomb projectV. ATOMIC SPY SCANDALSSoviet spy scandals of the 1950sThe Griffin: a little-known Allied spyVI. POST-WAR NUCLEAR DEVELOPMENTSControlling the nuclear programA proposal for the first nuclear reactor 1945-47First nuclear reactorsLater reactor developments, waste disposalVII. NUCLEAR FUSIONFirst fusion reactionConstruction of the first fusion or hydrogen bombsSoviet fusion bombPost World War II developments and cooperation in nuclear fusion reactor designSoviet, European, American, and Japanese nuclear fusion programsCooperation and competition in fusionVIII. SOLAR ENERGY AS AN APPROPRIATE ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGYIntroductoryHistory of solar energy as appropriate technologyA solar pioneer's circuitous route to solar energy applications: the contributions of DanielsSolar research in the 1960s, cooking and distillationPromotion of solar energy as appropriate technology: funds, stills, cookersDevelopment of photovoltaic cells: in space, on EarthConclusionIX. WIND ENERGYHistorical developmentWindfarms: onshore and offshoreWind energy production and costGovernment support of wind energy in the United StatesConclusionX. ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTIONIntroductoryWater purificationAcid rainWhat is acid rain?Measuring acid rainHistory of acid rainCauses of acid rainConsequences of acid rainRemedies for reducing acid rainGovernment regulations to control acid rainClimate change (global warming): its three-stage historyIntroductoryFirst stage 1800-1900: establishing a changing atmosphere-changing climate theory to account for ice ages and other climate changesSecond stage 1900-1940s: loss of interest in a changing atmosphere-changing climate theoryThird stage 1950s-present: revival of the changing atmosphere- changing climate theory, the role of CO2Revelle, CO2 absorption, oceans, and climate change• CO2 absorption, oceans' turnover rate and buffering• Processes to measure DIC and total alkalinity• Revelle Factor (R): measuring the buffering effect• Suess carbon isotope determinations• Average lifetime for a CO2 molecule in the atmosphere• How much CO2 remains in the atmosphere• Other contributions and significanceConfirming the link between a changing atmosphere and a changing climate: Keeling and the Keeling CurveIs the debate over: Hansen's contributions to the changing atmosphere-changing climate theoryDeniers of the changing atmosphere-changing climate theory: Lomborg, Lindzen, and others, their six usual criticismsKyoto Protocol (1997), Copenhagen Accord (2009), and Paris Agreement (2015)Summary and concluding thoughts on climate changeLead and the environmentRecognition of lead poisoning goes back to ancient timesLead in paint issueFirst preparation of tetraethylleadTetraethyllead and the antiknock problemCommercial production of tetraethyllead, fatal consequencesKehoe industrial apologist, the rise of tetraethylleadPatterson and a new evaluation of lead's toxicity: the fall of tetraethyllead and other airborne lead sourcesPatterson's vindicationConclusionXI. CONCLUSIONREVIEW QUESTIONSEPILOGUEBIBLIOGRAPHYINDEX