Energy for a Sustainable World

Nicola Armaroli got his PhD in chemical sciences in 1994 from the University of Bologna. After post-doctoral studies in the U.S. and Italy, in 1997 he joined the Italian National Research Council (CNR), where he his currently senior research scientist. He has published three books and over 150 papers, giving tens of lectures worldwide. His current research is concerned with the photochemistry and photophysics of coordination compounds, carbon nanostructures and supramolecular materials, with focus on luminescence and photoinduced energy- and electron-transfer. This work is of interest both in fundamental science and technological applications, such as solar energy conversion and lighting devices. Vincenzo Balzani gained his chemistry degree in 1960 from the University of Bologna, where he has been Professor of Chemistry since 1973. He has been a visiting Professor in Canada, Israel, France and Belgium, headed various scientific committees and institutes and has held over 300 lectures worldwide. Alongside his membership of several editorial boards, Prof. Balzani has six books and over 500 papers to his name. He is a fellow of numerous societies, and has won many awards around the world. His research interests include photochemistry, photophysics, supramolecular chemistry, electron transfer reactions, molecular-level devices and machines, molecular nanotechnology, and photochemical solar energy conversion.

“The subjects are presented in a way that makes reading a real pleasure and promotes reflecting on the complex issues, thereby presenting the reader sustainable knowledge in its best sense. A clear recommendation!.”  (Energy Technology, 1 August 2014)"It describes the complexity and importance of energy, and opportunities for future energy technologies and practices that will enhance sustainable development. Summing Up: Recommend. All readers." (Choice, 1 January 2012) "The appeal of this as a compact reference volume is therefore broad and I would strongly recommend it for all who are interested in finding out more about the energy issues that we need to think about in modern and future society." (Chemistry World, 1 August 2011)"An excellent source of updated and carefully documented information on the entangled aspects of the energy issue, this book is a guide for scientists, students and teachers looking for ways out of the energy and climate crisis, and the problems and disparities generated during the fossil fuel era." (ETDE Energy database, 14 February 2011)

• Preface xvAcknowledgments xviiNotation xixPart One Living on Spaceship Earth 11 The Energy Challenge 31.1 Our Spaceship Earth 31.2 An Unsustainable Growth in an Unequal World 51.2.1 Population Growth and Carrying Capacity 51.2.2 Economic Growth and Ecologic Degradation 61.2.3 Inequalities 61.3 Energy and Climate Crisis 81.4 Dealing with Change 81.5 Unavoidable Questions 92 Concepts and Misconcepts 112.1 The Elusive Definition of Energy 112.2 A Taste of Basic Principles 122.3 Converting Primary Energy into Useful Energy 132.4 It Takes Energy to Make Energy: the EROI 142.5 Embodied Energy 142.6 Energy Units and Conversions 162.7 The Immense Energy and Power Scales 162.8 Some Energy Key Parameters 172.9 Energy Pervasiveness Versus Energy Illiteracy 192.10 Key Numbers: an Abacus for Energy Literacy 203 Energy in History 253.1 Historia Magistra Vitae 253.2 Animal Power 263.3 Human Slaves and Energy Slaves 283.4 Waterwheels and Windwheels 283.5 From Wood to Coal 303.6 Steam-Powered Machines 313.7 Road Vehicles 323.8 Aircraft 333.8.1 Conventional Engines 333.8.2 Jet Engines 343.9 Electricity 353.9.1 Early Development 353.9.2 From Wayfarers to ICT 35Part Two Fossil Fuels 394 Oil 414.1 What is Oil 414.2 Oil History, Exploration, Drilling, Production 424.2.1 History 424.2.2 Exploration 434.2.3 Drilling 434.2.4 Production 454.3 Oil Transportation 474.3.1 Pipelines 474.3.2 Tankers 484.4 Oil Refining 494.5 Oil Storage 504.6 Unconventional Oil 514.7 Petrochemicals 534.8 Oil as a Fuel 544.8.1 World Picture 544.8.2 US and Developed Countries 554.8.3 China and India 564.9 America’s Addiction to Oil 574.10 Oil Price 614.11 Oil Peak and Reserves 634.11.1 A Non-renewable Resource 634.11.2 Oil Reserves 634.11.3 Oil Peak 645 Natural Gas 695.1 What is Natural Gas and Where It Comes From 695.2 Gas Properties and Definitions 705.3 Brief Historical Notes on Gas Exploitation 715.4 Gas Production, Consumption, and Reserves 715.5 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) 735.6 Natural Gas Processing 755.7 Transport, Storage, and Distribution 765.7.1 Transport 765.7.2 Storage 785.7.3 Distribution 785.8 Gas Uses: Energy and Feedstock 795.8.1 Energy Use 795.8.2 Natural Gas as a Feedstock 805.9 Unconventional Gas 816 Coal 856.1 What is Coal 856.2 Coal Extraction 866.3 Coal Transportation and Industrial Uses 876.4 Coal Gasification 886.5 Coal Production, Consumption, and Reserves 896.6 Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) 906.7 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) 937 Fossil Legacy 977.1 The Energy Dark Sides 977.1.1 Inequalities and Externalities 977.1.2 Monetizing Costs 987.1.3 Indirect Effects 987.2 Alteration of the Carbon Cycle by Fossil Fuel Combustion 997.2.1 Carbon Reservoirs and Fluxes 997.2.2 CO 2 Rise and Its Measurement 1007.2.3 The Greenhouse Effect 1017.3 Anthropogenic Climate Change 1027.3.1 The Path to Present Understanding 1027.3.2 Melting of Ice Sheets 1037.3.3 Interference with Ocean Currents 1047.3.4 Ocean Acidification 1047.3.5 Permafrost Melting 1057.3.6 Effects on Weather and Ecosystems 1067.4 Air Pollution and Global Warming 1067.4.1 Globalizing Smog 1067.4.2 Aerosols and Black Carbon 1077.4.3 Ozone, Ozone Depleting Substances and N 2 O 1087.4.4 A Complicated Picture 1087.5 Counterbalancing our Climate Influence 1097.6 Putting a Limit to CO 2 1117.6.1 Regulatory Efforts to Curb Greenhouse Emissions 1117.6.2 ppm or Teratons? 1137.7 Air Pollution and Human Health 1147.7.1 A Complex Atmospheric Mix 1147.7.2 No X 1157.7.3 Ozone 1157.7.4 Particulate Matter 1167.7.5 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 1177.7.6 Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2) and Acidic Precipitations 1177.7.7 Heavy Metals 1187.8 Land and Water Degradation 1197.8.1 Oil Spills 1197.8.2 Coal Combustion Residues (CCRs) 1207.9 So, What? 122Part Three Nuclear Energy 1238 Nuclear Energy 1258.1 Principles of Nuclear Fission and Fusion 1258.1.1 Radioactivity, Mass and Energy 1258.1.2 Structure of Matter 1268.1.3 Nuclear Fission 1288.1.4 Controlled and Uncontrolled Chain Fission Reactions 1298.1.5 Nuclear Fusion 1308.2 Power from Nuclear Fission 1308.2.1 Past and Present 1308.2.2 Nuclear Fuel 1328.2.3 Uranium Supply 1338.2.4 Nuclear Reactor Technologies 1358.2.5 Cost and Time Issues 1378.2.6 Proliferation 1398.2.7 Safety and Security 1408.2.8 Waste Management 1418.2.9 Decommissioning and Dismantling 1428.2.10 Other Limiting Factors 1448.2.11 Perspectives 1458.2.12 Nuclear Industry Renaissance? 1478.3 Civilian Use of Nuclear Fusion? 1488.3.1 A Difficult Problem 1488.3.2 Magnetic Confinement Approach 1498.3.3 Inertial Confinement Approach 1508.3.4 Wishful Thinking 150Part Four Renewable Energies 1559 Solar Energy Basics 1579.1 The Origin of Sunshine 1579.2 Solar Radiation and Attenuation 1599.3 Abundant, Fairly Distributed, Vital 1619.4 Sun’s Limits: Dilution and Intermittency 1629.5 The Conversion of Solar Energy: Heat, Fuels, Electricity 16310 Solar Heat and Electricity 16710.1 Passive Solar Harnessing in Buildings 16710.2 Thermal Conversion: Unconcentrated Solar Flux 16810.2.1 Solar Thermal Panels 16810.2.1.1 Collectors 16810.2.1.2 Water Management 16910.2.1.3 Sun Exposure 17010.2.2 Current Deployment and Trends of Solar Thermal Panels 17010.2.3 Earth Energy Systems (EES) 17210.2.4 Solar Thermoelectrics 17310.3 Thermal Conversion: Concentrated Solar Flux 17610.3.1 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) 17610.3.2 Parabolic Trough Collectors 17810.3.3 Solar Towers 18010.3.4 Dish Collectors with Stirling Engines 18110.3.5 Solar Updraft Towers (Chimneys) 18110.3.6 Cost Considerations and Carbon Footprint of Solar Thermal Electricity 18210.3.7 Solar Thermochemical Conversion 18310.4 The Birth and Rise of Photovoltaics 18510.5 Inorganic Photovoltaics: Key Principles 18610.6 Silicon Solar Cells 18810.6.1 Manufacturing of Poly- and Single-crystalline Silicon Cells 18910.6.2 Material Requirements, Life-cycle Impacts and Cost 19010.6.3 Amorphous Thin Film Silicon Cells 19110.7 Thin Film Solar Cells 19210.8 Organic Solar Cells 19310.9 Concentrated Photovoltaics and Other Innovative Concepts 19610.10 Photovoltaics: Global Installation and Market Trends 19710.11 Solar Energy: Sustainable and Affordable 19811 Solar Fuels 20311.1 Introduction 20311.2 Natural Photosynthesis 20411.2.1 A Complex Process 20411.2.2 Natural Antenna Systems 20511.2.3 Natural Reaction Centers 20511.2.4 Efficiency of Photosynthesis 20811.3 Biomass and Biofuels 20911.3.1 Biomass 20911.3.2 Biofuels Today 20911.3.3 Second-generation Biofuels 21311.3.4 Biofuel Perspectives 21411.4 Future Options for Transportation Fuels 21511.5 Artificial Photosynthesis 21611.5.1 The Need for Solar Fuels 21611.5.2 Choosing the Right Type of Photoreaction 21911.5.3 Choosing the Right Chemical Substrate 22011.5.4 Components of an Artificial Photosynthetic System 22211.5.5 Coupling Artificial Antenna and Reaction Center 22211.5.6 The Problem of Multi-electron Redox Processes 22411.5.7 Water Splitting by Semiconductor Photocatalysis 22511.6 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells 22711.7 The Solar Fuel Challenge 22812 Other Renewables 23112.1 Hydroelectric Energy 23112.1.1 The Rise of Hydropower 23112.1.2 Potential, Current Deployment, and Use 23212.1.3 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Environmental Impact 23312.1.4 Hydropower Future 23412.2 Wind Energy 23512.2.1 Brief Historical Notes 23512.2.2 Wind Power Technology 23512.2.3 The Huge Potential of Wind Power 23812.2.4 Current Deployment and Trends 23912.2.5 Environmental Impact 24112.2.6 The Cost of Wind Power 24212.3 Ocean Energies 24212.3.1 Tidal Energy 24212.3.2 Wave Energy 24412.3.3 Ocean Thermal Energy 24512.4 Geothermal Energy 24612.4.1 The Geothermal Resource 24612.4.2 Electricity Production 24712.4.3 Heat for Direct Use 24812.4.4 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Perspectives 24912.4.5 The Next Frontier: Going Deeper 249Part Five Energy Carriers 25113 Electricity 25313.1 Basic Concepts 25313.2 Illumination 25513.3 Traditional Power Generation 25613.3.1 Demand and Supply 25613.3.2 Thermal Power Plants Based on Fossil Fuels 25913.3.2.1 Coal-fired Power Plants 25913.3.2.2 Oil or Gas Power Plants 25913.3.3 Hydroelectric Power Plants 26013.3.4 Nuclear Power Plants 26113.3.5 Contribution by Other Energy Sources 26113.4 Traditional Electricity Grid 26113.5 Power Generation from New Renewables 26413.5.1 Intermittency and Fluctuation 26413.5.2 Electricity from Wind 26513.5.3 Electricity from Solar Energy Conversion 26513.6 Energy Storage for Electricity Supply Networks 26613.6.1 Role of Storage 26613.6.2 Pumped Hydro 26713.6.3 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) 26813.6.4 Flywheels 26813.6.5 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) 26913.6.6 Electrostatic Energy Storage (Capacitors) 27013.6.7 Batteries 27013.6.7.1 Battery Requirements 27013.6.8 Electrolytic Hydrogen 27313.7 Plugging-in Transportation 27313.7.1 Hybrid and Full Electric Vehicles 27313.7.2 Infrastructure 27513.8 Smart Grid 27513.9 Towards an Electricity Powered World 27714 Hydrogen 27914.1 Introduction 27914.2 Properties and Industrial Uses 28014.3 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier: The Scale of the Task 28114.4 Methods for Producing Hydrogen 28214.4.1 “Clean Coal” Technology 28214.4.2 Biomass 28214.4.3 Water Electrolysis 28314.4.3.1 General Concepts 28314.4.3.2 Hydroelectric Power 28414.4.3.3 Wind Electric Power 28514.4.3.4 Solar Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemical Electricity 28514.4.3.5 Solar Thermal Electricity 28514.4.4 Photoelectrochemical and Photochemical Water Splitting 28614.4.5 Nuclear Energy 28614.5 Hydrogen Storage 28714.5.1 A Difficult Problem 28714.5.2 Liquid Hydrogen 28814.5.3 Compressed Hydrogen 28814.5.4 Metal Hydrides 28814.5.5 Other Systems 28914.6 Hydrogen Transportation and Distribution 29014.6.1 Centralized Distribution 29014.6.2 Decentralized Distribution 29114.7 End Uses of Hydrogen Fuel 29114.7.1 Fuel Cells: General Concepts 29114.7.2 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Hydrogen Fuel Cells 29214.7.3 Other Types of Hydrogen Fuel Cells 29314.7.4 Reformed Methanol Fuel Cells 29414.7.5 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 29514.8 Hydrogen Powered Vehicles 29614.9 Towards a Hydrogen Economy? 298Part Six Scenarios for a Sustainable Future 30115 The Challenge Ahead 30315.1 Reflection on the State of Our Planet: Now We Know 30315.2 Energy Demand and Supply 30415.3 Energy and the Quality of Life 30515.3.1 A Focusing Illusion 30515.3.2 Energy, Obesity, Iniquity 30615.4 Saving the Climate 30615.5 Phasing Out Fossil Fuels 30715.6 Avoiding Nuclear Energy 30715.7 Ecological Sustainability 30815.7.1 Natural Capital 30815.7.2 Learning to Say Enough 30915.8 Why We Need to Develop Renewable Energies 31015.9 Conclusion 312Appendix – Did You Know That ? 315References 321Index 353