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47 produkter
47 produkter
822 kr
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In this concise yet comprehensive history, Heinz D. Kurz traces the long arc of economic thought from its emergence in ancient Greece to its systematic presentation among the classical thinkers of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries to the influential work of scholars such as Paul Samuelson and Kenneth J. Arrow. With a keen eye for how economic insights are acquired, lost, and reborn, Kurz focuses on the dynamic individuals who give old ideas new life and the historical events that provoke different approaches and theories. Over the course of this journey, Kurz explains what Adam Smith meant by the "invisible hand"; how Karl Marx's "law of motion" works in capitalist economies; the roots of the Austrian economists' emphasis on the problems of information, incomplete knowledge, and uncertainty; John Maynard Keynes's principle of effective demand and economic stabilization; and the insights and challenges offered by growth theory, welfare economics, game theory, and more. He concludes with a deft summation of world economists' major concerns today and their critical relation to world events.
203 kr
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In this concise yet comprehensive history, Heinz D. Kurz traces the long arc of economic thought from its emergence in ancient Greece to its systematic presentation among the classical thinkers of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries to the influential work of scholars such as Paul Samuelson and Kenneth J. Arrow. With a keen eye for how economic insights are acquired, lost, and reborn, Kurz focuses on the dynamic individuals who give old ideas new life and the historical events that provoke different approaches and theories. Over the course of this journey, Kurz explains what Adam Smith meant by the "invisible hand"; how Karl Marx's "law of motion" works in capitalist economies; the roots of the Austrian economists' emphasis on the problems of information, incomplete knowledge, and uncertainty; John Maynard Keynes's principle of effective demand and economic stabilization; and the insights and challenges offered by growth theory, welfare economics, game theory, and more. He concludes with a deft summation of world economists' major concerns today and their critical relation to world events.
3 225 kr
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This Handbook provides a thorough discussion of the most recent wave of technological (and organisational) innovations, frequently called “smart” and based on the digitisation of information. The acronym stands for "Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology". This new wave is one in a row of waves that have shaken up and transformed the economy, society and culture since the first Industrial Revolution and have left a huge impact on how we live, think, communicate and work: they have deeply affected the socioeconomic metabolism from within and humankind’s footprint on our planet. The Handbook analyses the origins of the current wave, its roots in earlier ones and its path-dependent nature; its current forms and actual manifestations; its multifarious impact on economy and society; and it puts forward some guesstimates regarding the probable directions of its further development. In short, the Handbook studies the past, the present and the future of smart technologies and digitalisation.This cutting-edge reference will appeal to a broad audience, including but not limited to, researchers from various disciplines with a focus on technological innovation and their impact on the socioeconomic system; students across different fields but especially from economics, social sciences and law studying questions related to radical technological change and its consequences, as well as professionals around the globe interested in the debate of smart technologies and socioeconomic transformation, from a multi- and interdisciplinary perspective.
2 113 kr
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The book provides new vistas on Karl Marx’s political economy, philosophy and politics on the occasion of his 200th birthday.Often using hitherto unknown material from the recently published Marx- Engels Gesamtausgabe (the MEGA2 edition), the contributions throw new light on Marx’s works and activities, the sources he used and the discussions he had, correcting received opinions on his doctrines. The themes dealt with include Marx’s concepts of alienation and commodity fetishism, the labour theory of value and the theory of exploitation, Marx’s studies of capital accumulation and economic growth and his analysis of economic crises and of the labour contract. Novel developments in the reception of his works in France and the UK conclude the volume.This book was originally published as a special issue of The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought.
618 kr
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The book provides new vistas on Karl Marx’s political economy, philosophy and politics on the occasion of his 200th birthday.Often using hitherto unknown material from the recently published Marx- Engels Gesamtausgabe (the MEGA2 edition), the contributions throw new light on Marx’s works and activities, the sources he used and the discussions he had, correcting received opinions on his doctrines. The themes dealt with include Marx’s concepts of alienation and commodity fetishism, the labour theory of value and the theory of exploitation, Marx’s studies of capital accumulation and economic growth and his analysis of economic crises and of the labour contract. Novel developments in the reception of his works in France and the UK conclude the volume.This book was originally published as a special issue of The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought.
Competition, Value and Distribution in Classical Economics
Studies in Long-Period Analysis
Inbunden, Engelska, 2022
2 176 kr
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Drawing in particular on the work of Sraffa, Smith, Ricardo and Marx, the essays in this volume explore the characteristic features of the Classical economists’ approach to economic problems, and the renewal of interest in that approach in modern times.In recent years, new material has been made available on both Sraffa and Marx which have made new insights and interpretations possible. The release of Sraffa’s hitherto unpublished papers and correspondence has led to reconsideration of doctrinal questions such as to what extent Sraffa built upon, or deviated from the analyses of Adam Smith, David Ricardo and other representatives of the classical British school and Karl Marx. A major theme is also to what extent we can today, equipped with Sraffa's insights and analytical tools, re-interpret and develop ideas of classical authors, which they could present only in primitive forms, on technological progress, exhaustible resources and other contemporary issues. On Marx, the publication of the MEGA2 edition of the works, papers and correspondence of Marx and Engels also gives rise to a reconsideration of this relationship, given Marx's disenchantment with some of his own work and return to ideas advocated by Ricardo, especially as regards the long-term tendency of the rate of profits. Finally, the classical notion of competition and monopoly deserve to be scrutinized carefully again and frequent misinterpretations in the literature refuted.This volume is vital reading for scholars of classical economics, Marx and Sraffa, and the history of economic thought more broadly. It also deals with issues in the areas of machinery and technical progress, joint production, and economic development and growth.
Competition, Value and Distribution in Classical Economics
Studies in Long-Period Analysis
Häftad, Engelska, 2023
637 kr
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Drawing in particular on the work of Sraffa, Smith, Ricardo and Marx, the essays in this volume explore the characteristic features of the Classical economists’ approach to economic problems, and the renewal of interest in that approach in modern times.In recent years, new material has been made available on both Sraffa and Marx which have made new insights and interpretations possible. The release of Sraffa’s hitherto unpublished papers and correspondence has led to reconsideration of doctrinal questions such as to what extent Sraffa built upon, or deviated from the analyses of Adam Smith, David Ricardo and other representatives of the classical British school and Karl Marx. A major theme is also to what extent we can today, equipped with Sraffa's insights and analytical tools, re-interpret and develop ideas of classical authors, which they could present only in primitive forms, on technological progress, exhaustible resources and other contemporary issues. On Marx, the publication of the MEGA2 edition of the works, papers and correspondence of Marx and Engels also gives rise to a reconsideration of this relationship, given Marx's disenchantment with some of his own work and return to ideas advocated by Ricardo, especially as regards the long-term tendency of the rate of profits. Finally, the classical notion of competition and monopoly deserve to be scrutinized carefully again and frequent misinterpretations in the literature refuted.This volume is vital reading for scholars of classical economics, Marx and Sraffa, and the history of economic thought more broadly. It also deals with issues in the areas of machinery and technical progress, joint production, and economic development and growth.
413 kr
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This collection brings together leading economists from around the world to explore key issues in economic analysis and the history of economic thought. This book deals with important themes in economics in terms of an approach that has its roots in the works of the classical economists from Adam Smith to David Ricardo. The chapters have been inspired by the work of Neri Salvadori, who has made key contributions in various areas including the theory of production, the theory of value and distribution, the theory of economic growth, as well as the theory of renewable and deplorable natural resources. The main themes in this book include production, value and distribution; endogenous economic growth; renewable and exhaustible natural resources; capital and profits; oligopolistic competition; effective demand and capacity utilization; financial regulation; and themes in the history of economic analysis. Several of the contributions are closely related to the works of Neri Salvadori. This is demonstrated with respect to important contemporary topics including the sources of economic growth, the role of exhaustible resources in economic development, the reduction and disposal of waste, the redistribution of income and wealth, and the regulation of an inherently unstable financial sector. All contributions are brand new, original and concise, written by leading exponents in their field of expertise. Together this volume represents an invaluable contribution to economic analysis and the history of economic thought. This book is suitable for those who study economic theory and its history, political economy as well as philosophy.
665 kr
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This book brings together leading scholars of the history of economic thought to demonstrate the vitality and richness of a discipline that welcomes both practitioners of intellectual, contextual history, as well as specialists in the historical explanation of the analytical and theoretical dimension of economic science. They shed new light on a variety of themes and problems and move the frontier of knowledge in the areas covered.Economic Analyses in Historical Perspective is presented in three parts. The first deals with French traditions in economics, a field that Gilbert Faccarello has tilled for many years and to which he has made numerous contributions. The second turns to the dissemination and diffusion of economic ideas and theories across national borders, and thus to the European and even global level. Finally, the third part deals with analytical developments in some selected fields of economics: public economics, monetary policy, trade theory and spatial economics. This volume is of great importance to those who study history of economic thought, political economy and monetary economics. The chapters’ centre around the work of Gilbert Faccarello, making this book a fitting tribute to his academic career on the history of economic theory and ideas.
2 666 kr
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The 'classical' approach to economic problems, which can be traced back to Adam Smith and David Ricardo, has seen a remarkable revival in recent years. The essays in this collection argue that this approach holds the key to an explanation of important present day economic phenomena. Focusing on the analytical potentialities of classical economics, the contributors illustrate how an important element of understanding its approach consists of developing and using its explanatory power.
3 604 kr
Skickas inom 5-8 vardagar
In this thought-provoking book, well known economists Kurz and Salvadori cover original findings and new vistas on old problems. They cover:alternative interpretations of classical economistsnew growth theorythe relationship between Sraffian theory and Von Neumannthe treatment of capital in neoclassical long-period theory.Incorporating cutting-edge research and new work, this book will be of great interest to those working in the field of the history of economic thought.
833 kr
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In this thought-provoking book, well known economists Kurz and Salvadori cover original findings and new vistas on old problems. They cover:alternative interpretations of classical economistsnew growth theorythe relationship between Sraffian theory and Von Neumannthe treatment of capital in neoclassical long-period theory.Incorporating cutting-edge research and new work, this book will be of great interest to those working in the field of the history of economic thought.
1 336 kr
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Previously published as special issues of The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought and The Review of Political Economy, this volume contains the papers devoted to the life and work of Piero Sraffa.Sraffa was a leading intellectual of the twentieth century. He was brought to Cambridge by John Maynard Keynes and had an important impact on the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. He received the golden medal Söderström of the Swedish Academy of Sciences for his edition of David Ricardo's Works and Correspondence and he is the author of Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, one of the most often cited book in economics. Using hitherto unpublished material from Sraffa's literary heritage kept at Trinity College, Cambridge, the papers throw new light on the intellectual development of the young Sraffa and correct several of the received views on him and his contribution. Themes covered concern his: objectivismrediscovery and reformulation of the classical theory of value and distributioncriticism of Alfred Marshall's analysisrelationship with his Cambridge colleagues and friendsbiography around the time when he left Italy for the UKfriendship with Wittgenstein and his impact on the latter's thinking.
2 246 kr
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Few economists have been as prolific and wide-ranging as Takashi Negishi. Part of the "Hicksian" generation of Neo-Walrasian general equilibrium theorists, Negishi rose to prominence during the early 1960s with his work on the Neo-Walrasian system. Negishi's signature has been his attempt to extend the multi-market Neo-Walrasian system in several directions to incorporate concerns such as imperfect comptetition, stability, money, trade and unemployment - and, as a consequence, helping to discover and delineate the limits of conventional theory. This collection in honour of Takashi Negishi analyses his contributions to the history of economic theory. Economists paying tribute within this volume include Neri Salvadori, Laurence Moss, and Joaquim Silvestre.
2 386 kr
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Ian Steedman is recognised internationally as one of the leading economic theorists of his time and has made major contributions to the development of economic theory and economic thought, as substantiated by his work on Marx, Sraffa, Marshall, Jevons and Wicksteed. His contributions to economic theory include his work on time, international trade, capital theory and growth and distribution. This collection reflects the wide ranging interests of Ian Steedman and is a tribute to his outstanding contributions.This edited collection brings together twenty two new essays by distinguished economists from around the world. The papers cover a wide range of topics including; international trade – an area in which Steedman has made significant contributions; Sraffa, the history of economic thought and theoretical papers – including Faustian Agents and market failure in waste production.The essays in this book will be an invaluable source for economists interested in economic theory or in the evolution of economic thought. It will also be of interest to postgraduate and research students in economic theory and the history of economic thought.John Vint is Professor of Economics at Manchester Metropolitan University, UK. J. Stanley Metcalfe is Professor of Economics at the University of Manchester, UK. Heinz D. Kurz is Professor of Economics at the University of Graz, Austria. Neri Salvadori is Professor of Economics at the University of Pisa, Italy. Paul Samuelson is Professor of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA.
510 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Previously published as special issues of The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought and The Review of Political Economy, this volume contains the papers devoted to the life and work of Piero Sraffa.Sraffa was a leading intellectual of the twentieth century. He was brought to Cambridge by John Maynard Keynes and had an important impact on the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. He received the golden medal Söderström of the Swedish Academy of Sciences for his edition of David Ricardo's Works and Correspondence and he is the author of Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, one of the most often cited book in economics. Using hitherto unpublished material from Sraffa's literary heritage kept at Trinity College, Cambridge, the papers throw new light on the intellectual development of the young Sraffa and correct several of the received views on him and his contribution. Themes covered concern his: objectivismrediscovery and reformulation of the classical theory of value and distributioncriticism of Alfred Marshall's analysisrelationship with his Cambridge colleagues and friendsbiography around the time when he left Italy for the UKfriendship with Wittgenstein and his impact on the latter's thinking.
2 386 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book deals with the prime movers of socio-economic development, innovations and technical change, their origins, forms and effects. It contains a set of closely related chapters, some of which have been previously published as papers in scholarly journals
1 406 kr
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This collection brings together significant new contributions to the Sraffa--based theories of production and distribution, from post-Keynesian arguments concerning monetary and macro economics to the history of thought and methodology. All of the authors are well established authorities in their field, and in this book they add stimulating and original pieces of analysis to the contemporary literature.Production, Distribution and Trade is divided into three parts. The first explores analytical issues in production and exchange theory, the second examines Postkeynesian Macroeconomics and the final part includes essays on the history of economic thought and methodology. This collection has been written in honour of Sergio Parrinello and is a fitting tribute to his untiring efforts to stimulate discussion among Classicists, Marxists, Postkeynesians, and Evolutionists.The book is a clear and convincing attempt to prove that an alternative paradigm to mainstream economics is alive and thriving and to argue that these perspectives shed better light on current economic problems, both as diagnosis and in terms of policy conclusions. The book will be of interest to Economics postgraduate students and researchers working in the Classical and Postkeynesian tradition.
777 kr
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Ian Steedman is recognised internationally as one of the leading economic theorists of his time and has made major contributions to the development of economic theory and economic thought, as substantiated by his work on Marx, Sraffa, Marshall, Jevons and Wicksteed. His contributions to economic theory include his work on time, international trade, capital theory and growth and distribution. This collection reflects the wide ranging interests of Ian Steedman and is a tribute to his outstanding contributions.This edited collection brings together twenty two new essays by distinguished economists from around the world. The papers cover a wide range of topics including; international trade – an area in which Steedman has made significant contributions; Sraffa, the history of economic thought and theoretical papers – including Faustian Agents and market failure in waste production.The essays in this book will be an invaluable source for economists interested in economic theory or in the evolution of economic thought. It will also be of interest to postgraduate and research students in economic theory and the history of economic thought.John Vint is Professor of Economics at Manchester Metropolitan University, UK. J. Stanley Metcalfe is Professor of Economics at the University of Manchester, UK. Heinz D. Kurz is Professor of Economics at the University of Graz, Austria. Neri Salvadori is Professor of Economics at the University of Pisa, Italy. Paul Samuelson is Professor of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA.
833 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book deals with the prime movers of socio-economic development, innovations and technical change, their origins, forms and effects. It contains a set of closely related chapters, some of which have been previously published as papers in scholarly journals
833 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Few economists have been as prolific and wide-ranging as Takashi Negishi. Part of the "Hicksian" generation of Neo-Walrasian general equilibrium theorists, Negishi rose to prominence during the early 1960s with his work on the Neo-Walrasian system. Negishi's signature has been his attempt to extend the multi-market Neo-Walrasian system in several directions to incorporate concerns such as imperfect comptetition, stability, money, trade and unemployment - and, as a consequence, helping to discover and delineate the limits of conventional theory. This collection in honour of Takashi Negishi analyses his contributions to the history of economic theory. Economists paying tribute within this volume include Neri Salvadori, Laurence Moss, and Joaquim Silvestre.
497 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This collection brings together significant new contributions to the Sraffa--based theories of production and distribution, from post-Keynesian arguments concerning monetary and macro economics to the history of thought and methodology. All of the authors are well established authorities in their field, and in this book they add stimulating and original pieces of analysis to the contemporary literature.Production, Distribution and Trade is divided into three parts. The first explores analytical issues in production and exchange theory, the second examines Postkeynesian Macroeconomics and the final part includes essays on the history of economic thought and methodology. This collection has been written in honour of Sergio Parrinello and is a fitting tribute to his untiring efforts to stimulate discussion among Classicists, Marxists, Postkeynesians, and Evolutionists.The book is a clear and convincing attempt to prove that an alternative paradigm to mainstream economics is alive and thriving and to argue that these perspectives shed better light on current economic problems, both as diagnosis and in terms of policy conclusions. The book will be of interest to Economics postgraduate students and researchers working in the Classical and Postkeynesian tradition.
833 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
The 'classical' approach to economic problems, which can be traced back to Adam Smith and David Ricardo, has seen a remarkable revival in recent years. The essays in this collection argue that this approach holds the key to an explanation of important present day economic phenomena. Focusing on the analytical potentialities of classical economics, the contributors illustrate how an important element of understanding its approach consists of developing and using its explanatory power.
604 kr
Skickas inom 7-10 vardagar
This collection offers a critical assessment of the published works of Piero Sraffa, one of the leading economists of the twentieth century, and their legacy for the economics profession. The topics covered explore Sraffa's interpretation of the classical economists; his theory of value and distribution; his critique of partial and general neoclassical equilibrium theory; his focus on the problem of capital; and his critique of Hayek's monetary overinvestment theory of the business cycle. Specific issues investigated include intertemporal general equilibrium theory and the capital problem; the probability of reswitching; Ricardo, Malthus, and the corn model; and the meaning and implication of the capital controversy. Among the contributors are many of the world's leading students of Sraffian economics, including Nobel Laureate Paul Samuelson, Christian Bidard, Edwin Burmeister, John Eatwell, Pierangelo Garegnani, Samuel Hollander, Heinz Kurz, Lynn Mainwaring, Neri Salvadori, Bertram Schefold and Ian Steedman.
1 336 kr
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This compelling book contains a comprehensive analytical treatment of the theory of production in a long-period framework. Although the authors take a 'Classical' approach to their subject, the scope of investigation and methods employed should interest all economic theorists. Professors Kurz and Salvadori explore economic systems that are characterised by a particular kind of primary input in the production process, such as different kinds of labour and natural resources. These systems and the corresponding prices can be understood to reflect characteristic features of a capitalist market economy in an ideal way: they express the pure logic of the relationship between value and distribution in an economic system. Specific chapters deal with prices and income distribution, economic growth, joint production, fixed capital, scarce natural resources (both renewable and exhaustible), and heterogeneous labour. The historical origins of the concepts used are also discussed in considerable detail.
2 529 kr
Skickas inom 7-10 vardagar
This collection offers a critical assessment of the published works of Piero Sraffa, one of the leading economists of the twentieth century, and their legacy for the economics profession. The topics covered explore Sraffa's interpretation of the classical economists; his theory of value and distribution; his critique of partial and general neoclassical equilibrium theory; his focus on the problem of capital; and his critique of Hayek's monetary overinvestment theory of the business cycle. Specific issues investigated include intertemporal general equilibrium theory and the capital problem; the probability of reswitching; Ricardo, Malthus, and the corn model; and the meaning and implication of the capital controversy. Among the contributors are many of the world's leading students of Sraffian economics, including Nobel Laureate Paul Samuelson, Christian Bidard, Edwin Burmeister, John Eatwell, Pierangelo Garegnani, Samuel Hollander, Heinz Kurz, Lynn Mainwaring, Neri Salvadori, Bertram Schefold and Ian Steedman.
694 kr
Skickas inom 7-10 vardagar
This compelling book contains a comprehensive analytical treatment of the theory of production in a long-period framework. Although the authors take a 'Classical' approach to their subject, the scope of investigation and methods employed should interest all economic theorists. Professors Kurz and Salvadori explore economic systems that are characterised by a particular kind of primary input in the production process, such as different kinds of labour and natural resources. These systems and the corresponding prices can be understood to reflect characteristic features of a capitalist market economy in an ideal way: they express the pure logic of the relationship between value and distribution in an economic system. Specific chapters deal with prices and income distribution, economic growth, joint production, fixed capital, scarce natural resources (both renewable and exhaustible), and heterogeneous labour. The historical origins of the concepts used are also discussed in considerable detail.
2 346 kr
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This highly illuminating book marks a significant stage in our growing understanding of how the development of national traditions of economic thought has been affected by both internal and external factors. The expert contributors set an explicit agenda for the study of the dissemination of economic ideas across four centuries, acknowledging that the history of dissemination is also a history of the flux of economic beliefs, rendering any generalization difficult, if not impossible. Topics explored include systems of political economy, European and American interactions, the diffusion of economic ideas in South-Eastern Europe and beyond, and the exchange of ideas between Japan and the rest of the world. This book will prove a fascinating and stimulating read for scholars and researchers in the field of economics generally, and more specifically in heterodox economics, the history of economic thought and economic theory.
749 kr
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This Handbook provides a thorough discussion of the most recent wave of technological (and organisational) innovations, frequently called “smart” and based on the digitisation of information. The acronym stands for "Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology". This new wave is one in a row of waves that have shaken up and transformed the economy, society and culture since the first Industrial Revolution and have left a huge impact on how we live, think, communicate and work: they have deeply affected the socioeconomic metabolism from within and humankind’s footprint on our planet. The Handbook analyses the origins of the current wave, its roots in earlier ones and its path-dependent nature; its current forms and actual manifestations; its multifarious impact on economy and society; and it puts forward some guesstimates regarding the probable directions of its further development. In short, the Handbook studies the past, the present and the future of smart technologies and digitalisation.This cutting-edge reference will appeal to a broad audience, including but not limited to, researchers from various disciplines with a focus on technological innovation and their impact on the socioeconomic system; students across different fields but especially from economics, social sciences and law studying questions related to radical technological change and its consequences, as well as professionals around the globe interested in the debate of smart technologies and socioeconomic transformation, from a multi- and interdisciplinary perspective.
2 325 kr
Kommande
Recent years have seen renewed interest in classical political economy. The essays in this collection, presented in honour of Christian Gehrke, explore the central tenets of classical political economy, its comeback in the aftermath of Sraffa’s works and the engagement of major economists.The chapters in the opening section present a gradual elaboration of what became known as the “classical” approach to political economy, with the theory of value and distribution as its core piece. It concerns what Sraffa called the “standpoint” of the classical economist, which revolves around the concept of “social surplus”, its distribution mainly as property incomes, and how “physical real costs” together with income distribution governs relative prices in conditions of free competition. The classical authors dealt with include François Quesnay, Richard Cantillon, David Hume, Adam Smith and especially David Ricardo. The second section explores the resurgence of classical political economy. Major elements of this comeback were, first, a new interpretation of the role of the labour theory of value which especially Ricardo had adopted as a makeshift solution in the absence of a coherent theory of value; and, secondly, the demonstration that relative competitive prices and the general rate of profits can be ascertained in terms of the givens in the classical approach to value and distribution. The implication of the findings within a classical framework of the analysis for marginalist theory are drawn. Finally, there are contributions dealing with the works of major economists, who at different times and in various contexts interacted with and intervened in the debates alluded to or tackled entirely novel problems. This applies especially to the problem of cyclical economic development or business cycles, which was particularly addressed by economists such as Otto Bauer, Friedrich August Hayek and Joseph A. Schumpeter.The book will be of great interest to readers in political economy, history of economic thought and economic theory.