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The canonically anomalous shape of Syriac verb ekah 'to find' is shown to result from a convergence of diachronic pressures on an intersection of phonological weak spots and morphosyntactic imbalance. The effect of the changes is a trade-off of morphosyntactic defectiveness for moderate phonological anomaly. The developmental hypothesis adopted underscores the importance both of multiple factors in diachronic change and of homeostasis in linguistic systems.
Phonology of Akkadian Syllable Structure
Predicative State and Inflection of the Nominal Predicate in Akkadian and Syriac
Häftad, Engelska, 1984
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The present study adopts a generative theoretical approach and analyzes a number of phonological and morphological rules in Akkadian, especially: a- EPENTHESIS, i - ADD , VOWEL DELE TION, VOWEL SHORTENING , VOWEL LENGTHENING , and FEM ININE SUFFIX SELECTION. Where necessary, the rules are motivated, described in detail, and reformulated. It is shown that all these rules are subordinated to constraints on Akkadian syllable structure. The Akkadian syllable may have no more than three segments (with the possible ex ception of a word-final syllable having a long vowel), and phonological rules eliminate overweight syllables, or produce well- formed ones. Sumerian influence seems to have engendered VOWEL DELETION in Akkadian, but the constraints on syllable structure curtail its applica tion. Related issues such as stress, orthography, and Assyrian VOWEL HARMONY are also treated.
Sequential Forms in Late Egyptian and Biblical Hebrew
A Parallel Development of Verbal Systems
Häftad, Engelska, 1980
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This paper presents the analysis of a common feature in Late Egyptian and Biblical Hebrew verbal systems, namely the existence of sequential forms, used to coordinate two sentences sharing the same time reference. This feature is analyzed both synchron ically and diachronically, whereby it appears that sequentiality is not a distinctive element of Egyptian and Semitic throughout their linguistic development, but a charac teristic of that area of Afroasiatic in one definite period of time. The formation of a new verbal paradigm containing sequential forms is tentatively interpreted within the general perspective of the creation of conjugated forms which supersede, in Late Egyp tian (plus Demotic and Coptic) and Biblical Hebrew (plus the post - Biblical language) the old formations, where differences in vocalic patterns indicated morphological varieties (Middle Egyptian sdm.f and Proto - Semitic / Ugaritic.
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Linguistic phenomena as manifested in the case of a Hebrew-speaking aphasic are discussed in this monograph. The patient's linguistic performance included: (1)writing down forms which deviated from the standard orthography, but which corresponded remarkably well with the types of underlying phonological repre sentation that a linguist might independently propose; (2) verbal behavior which involved the frequently random transfer of verbs from one class to another; (3) restructuring of surface forms to form "novelroots; (4) errors involving the complex rule of spirantization. Attention is paid to the implications for linguistic research in general, and for Semitic in particular.
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The morphology and morphophonemics of the verb in Rendille are treated; of simple stems consisting of a bare , and of derived stems consisting of a root plus an extension affix. Suffix extensions-which may be reflexive-middle causative, agentive-are dealt with in some detailbrief mention is made of prefix extensions, in particular the reduplicative. Some notes are included on verbal noun forms. Morphophonemic alternations in the verb are examined. Attention is drawn to the primacy of a 2-Consonant constraint in Rendille and various rule conspiracies designed to prevent violations of this; and rule conspiracies; phonotactically constrained consonant metathesis and a peeking rule'.
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There are three major dialect groups of Somali: Common (or Northern) Somali, Benaadir Somali, and Central Somali (Rahanwin, Af Maymay etc.). This article presents an outline of the Central Somali spoken in the Bay region of southern Somalia, including the city of Isha Baydhaba (Iscia Baidoa). Aspects of the dialects phonology, morphology , and syntax are described and a sample English Central Somali lexicon is provided. The study reveals that this dialect differs considerably from the other Somali dialects. It is also apparent from the description that this dialect is very similar indeed to that called Jabarti by Leo Reinisch and Maria von Tiling.
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Analysis of the pronunciation of the prefixed particles in Hebrew formal and semi-formal speech shows that deviations from the norms are of significance only in the minority of the forms, espe cially in the rare environments. The findings are explained by a markedness theory which incorporates frequency and naturalness of rules and conditions from phonetic, morphophonemic, and morpho syntactic points of view. The pronunciation of the prefixed particles may serve as a parameter for linguistic registers.
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New statistics are presented here on the kinds of word order present in the Aramaic of the book of Daniel; an attempt is made to examine the roles of word order in the verbal clause.
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Seven constraints on consonant sequences in Israeli Hebrew, which are the modern reflexes of older Semitic constraints, are discussed in relation to three levels: (i ) as Morpheme Structure Conditions imposed on the underlying consonantal root morpheme; (ii) as Surface Phonetic Constraints imposed on the word regardless of morphemic content; (iii) as Morpheme Sensitive Surface Constraints, which as the name suggests, are placed on words, but are sensitive to morphemic structure and categorization. The third set of constraints has not been seriously considered in the recent literature, yet at least some of the seven different constraints must be regarded as morpheme-sensitive. The root level is seen to play little or no role in determining these constraints.
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The Sam languages are spoken in the Eastern African countries of Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia. They include Rendille, Boni and the various dialects of the Somali dialect cluster. The term "Sam" refers to a closely-knit unit of Cushitic languages within the Omo-Tana (formerly called " Somaloid" or Macro-Somali) branch of Lowland East Cushitic. The Sam-speaking people originate from the Ethiopian Highlands. During the last two millennia, it is claimed here, they took possession of the arid plains of northeastern Kenya, Somalia and eastern Ethiopia. In the present paper an attempt is made at reconstructing aspects of the history of the Sam languages.
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The study examines the difference between lexicalized forms of certain predicate-types in Modern Hebrew as manifested through the binyan system of verb- morphology, on the one hand, and their more analytical or "decomposedcounterparts-with specific reference to expressions of Causation, as in hama'ase hexli oti 'the+deed sickened me vs. hama'ase asa oti xole 'the+deed made me sick'; of Inchoative, as in hu hexvir he paled' hu nihya xiver 'he grew pale'; and of Reflexive, as in hu hitgaleax 'he shaved vs. hu gileax et acmo ' he shaved OBJ himself '. It is suggested that the latter forms which may in some instances be attributed to foreign influence , today constitute the more productive devices for expressing such notions in Hebrewand as such they manifest a quite general trend of the language towards increasingly analytic forms of expression. In each case, the formal distinction between morphologi cally lexicalized causatives, inchoatives, and reflexives and their de composed or analytic counterparts is shown to express a semantic contrast in terms of the way the event under discussion is perceived by speakers.
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Current theories on the nature and history of the Chadic verbal system claim that Proto-Chadic had (aa fundamental binary distinction of aspect, in which (b) the Perfective was the unmarked category, and that (c) a characteristically marked Imperfective verb stem can be reconstructed for the proto- languageThis paper presents comparative evidence from 10 languages of the Biu- Mandara branch of Chadic, on the basis of which all three claims are rejectedThe existence of dichotomous aspect systems in some modern Chadic languages is explained by and related to essentially three simplification and / (or) elaboration processes which are attributed to the linguistic history of the in dividual branches of the family: (1) loss of stem- final marking de vices with compensatory shift to preverbal marking (2) redesignation of the proto-verbal noun, and (3) redesignation of verbal plurals.
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Dissatisfaction is expressed with the theories generally offered as explanation for the development of the IIwy verbs in West Semitic. As a result, recourse is made to an internal reconstruction of the relevant groun as it occurs in Classical Arabic, in terms of its lin guistic context in that language. From this the conclusion is drawn that mid vowels (e: and o:) existed as phonemes in these verbs at an earlier stage. The comparative data from Ethiopic and Hebrew is then examined, and found to be in broad agreement with the Arabic conclusions. Reasons for the loss of the phonemes, and the circum stances of that loss, are briefly discussed.
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This paper is a preliminary attempt to reconstruct the consonant system of Proto-East-Cushitic (PEC)one of the four branches of the Cushitic family. Data are taken from some twenty-odd languages including unpublished material on a variety of hitherto little known languages. After discussing a number of general problems raised by the phonological comparison of the East Cushitic languages, 23 consonants are reconstructed for the inventory of the proto- language and the evidence for the reconstructions is presented in the form of cognate sets and correspondence rules which map the proto-phonemes onto the individual reflexes. The method employed is that of comparative linguistics as traditionally employed in Indo-European linguistics.
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Investigating the verb la-mut 'to die' in Hebrew, one observes that, depending on the context, it has a secondary meaning ranging from 'want' to ' love'. It will be argued here that the different readings of the verb stem from a regularity in Hebrew according to which some verbs may change their interpretation in a predictable way, depending on their syntactic environment; when followed by a NP, the verb is interpreted as a comment on a situation; where followed by S, no such comment is required. The syntactic arguments for the analysis are based upon the operation of the Noun Phrase Constraint. The semantic arguments assume that a sentence embedded in a NP is a presupposition of the entire sentence. This analysis suggests that some verbs of perception and the like have as one of their semantic features [+/-comment] and some may add such a feature through the process of the semantic reading of the entire utterance .
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Paradigm Coherence
Evidence from Modern Hebrew; Oriental Israeli Hebrew: A Study in Phonetics
Häftad, Engelska, 1980
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Data from Modern Hebrew support the principle of paradigm coherence and the claim that inflection tends to minimize allomorphy while derivation preserves it. It is shown, however, that analogical change is a function of the degree of automaticity of the morphological and syntactic relationships concerned, and thus close inter- paradigmatic alternations may be subject to analogy as well. The direction of analogy can be determined either by reference to the unmarked base form or to opacity considerations.
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In Chaha the impersonal and Sg. 3m. object suffixes labialize the nearest preceding plain noncoronal consonant. Furthermore a consonant will become identical to the next following consonant if it can do so by becoming labialized or palatalized. An attempt to formulate these rules in an economical way that reflects universal constraints on action at a distance leads to the proposal that the notation Xo be abolished from generative phonology and that in its stead there be used structural descriptions of the more restricted for [X [Y] [Z] ], having the meaning of [X, Y][-X]0 [X, Z] .
Reference to Quantification in the City Dialect of Gaza; The Survival of Obsolete Hebrew Words in Idiomatic Expressions
Häftad, Engelska, 1975
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This is a sociolinguistic analysis of some very common ways in the dialect to refer to concepts of time and space on one hand, and other types of quantification on the other. Those concepts of time and space do not depend so much upon any one system within the grammar, as they do upon the ways of analyzing and reporting experiences which have become fixed in the language as integrated fashions of speaking. Those fashions of speaking are shown here in relating major events of the past, to time when and duration, in reference to age, place, space, etc. Through some very interesting loosetypes of adverbial constructions we report and analyze the oblique, indirect, approximated and circumstantial manner by which reference is made to those concepts in the language.
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An early established tenet of generative phonologists was that the SYSTEMATIC PHONEME should replace the neo Bloomfieldian AUTONOMOUS PHONEME in phonological theory, this being a gratuitous hypostatization frequently making it impossible to state phonological patterning in fully general form. This was early demonstrated by Robert Lees and Morris Halle in the now classical cases of Turkish and Russian devoicing. The present paper argues that for Tiberian Hebrew, ALTHOUGH autonomous phonemic analysis (2) and systematic phonemic analysis (3) clash in a considerably more radical way than do the above cases (4), NEVERTHELESS the distribution of the grapheme dagesh is interpretable only pursuant to the autonomous phonemic analysis (5). A solution is suggested to this apparent paradox (6).
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Relativization in Modern Israeli Hebrew is discussed from a number of perspectives. First, it is shown that when the resumptive (anaphoric) pronoun in Hebrew relativization is attracted to the position adjacent to the head noun, the relative subordinator she may be deleted. In other words, the pronoun may assume the perceptual function of relative subordinator. Next, it is shown that the resumptive pronoun itself functions as a perceptual simplifier in relativization, so that when the order of constituents in the relative clause is one which may create ambiguity or difficulty in assigning grammatical relations, the presence of an otherwise optional resumptive pronoun becomes obligatory. This is shown for both subject and object relativization. Further, it is shown that the option of deleting the resumptive pronoun in Hebrew relativization decreases when one goes down the scale of arguments: subject accusative > simple prepositional objects > complex prepositional objects. This hierarchy is discussed in the context of syntactic perceptual complexity . Finally, a number of new developments in the marking of relative clauses / pronouns is discussed, particularly the ascendence of the use of WH -pronouns as relative subordinators, and the suppletive effect this process has on the use of the subordinator she- and the resunptive pronouns.
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Some scholars, especially Diakonoff, have delineated a number of general Afroasiatic structural features which are present in the Chadic family. Most such comparative work has relied heavily on Hausa, but Hausa viewed alone does not always give an accurate picture of deeper Chadic patternsUsing data from Chadic languages in addition to Hausa we find many specific features of the Chadic verbal system correspond closely to those reconstructible for proto-Afroasiatic. Two such features are (1) use of a subject prefix, and (2alterations of verb stems to indicate aspect.
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The question of whether schwas are inserted or present in underlying representations of C 1 C 2 and C 1 C 2 C 3 verb stems in Berber is examined here in detailThis examination consists of proposing, motivating, and evaluating a number of analyses possible within the generative framework It also considers recent proposals concerning " abstract nessand "concreteness" of underlying representations, and alterna tive orderings of phonological rules. It is concluded that a "total ly concreteanalysis s-i.e with underlying schwas - is superior to other less concrete ones, chief among them the" totally abstract analysis with consonants only. The implications of this conclu sion are discussed and suggestions for further research are made.
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A hierarchy is suggested for the familiar syntactic and semantic factors determining realization of llebrew verbs in the particular conjugations. Other considerations apply whenever applicable no realizations are allowed which would form unpronounceable clusters; realizations preserv ing the consonant clusters of original nouns are preferredif a slot is occupied, the semantically-closest conjugation is chosen. To examine these claims, native speakers were asked to themselves innovate denomina tive verbs, or make judgements about hypothetical verhalizations. The results support the basic semantic/syntactic hierarchy; speakers even invent new devices allowing incorporation of non-syntactic and non-semantic factors without the hierarchy itself being significantly affected.
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The complexity of some complex sentence types in Urban Moroccan Arabic is studied here and compared with some other dialects of Arabic The types relative, direct object, subject and (nominal) predicate clauses, and all expansions of NP, and seem to be related both in structure and use (or deletion of subordinating conjunctions. The variety of sub-classes that exists for the four types, as as their conditioning, may indicate the complexity involved. Some processes of distinction between structures seem to be developing still, and it is interesting to compare them with earlier stages of Arabic ( Classical and Middle Arabic).
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This paper has two purposes: first, to present the facts of the system of kinship terminology of Angas; and second, to propose a formalism for representing such facts within linguistic descriptions. The analysis presented is purely formal, with no discussion of the cultural or func tional expression of the system in behavior. A number of anthropological concepts are found to be useful in the description; of particular note are the principle of reciprocity, and the necessity of carrying out kinship investigations from the point of view of both male and female Ego. It is argued that the proposed formalism is superior to other such systems which have been proposed because of its capacity for ready in tegration into current linguistic theory because of format and rule type. A few concluding remarks are made regarding suggested application of the proposed formalism to matters of semantic change and reconstruction.