Critical Metals Handbook

Gus Gunn is a principal research scientist at the British Geological Survey in Nottingham, UK. He has spent his entire career, starting in 1975, working in mineral exploration and mineral deposits research. Since 2009 his main focus has been on critical metals and on the development of strategies to ensure their long-term security of supply.

“In general, this is an excellent edition, with high quality figures, readable tables, clearly written texts, well-organized structure, and precisely aimed at a broad range of non-specialists in policy, environment pollution, remediation, and economy domains; but professionals and researchers working in exploration and mining sectors, including mining finance and investment, as well as in mineral processing and manufacturing, will be greatly satisfied to have this Handbook on their bookshelves.”  (Pure Appl. Geophys, 1 January 2015)"This is a highly recommended volume for anyone with an interest in the economics of the critical metals and their basic geology and mineralogy; it also belongs in any major earth sciences library. As these commodities have grown in importance during the past decade, bits and pieces of relevant material have been made available in various articles and government reports, but this is the first volume out the door to comprehensively bring all this material together, and it is a welcomed, well-produced, and data-rich book." Economic Geology, July 2014

• List of Contributors xiAcknowledgements xiii1 Metal resources use and criticality 1T.E. Graedel Gus Gunn and Luis Tercero EspinozaThe geology and technology of metals 1Key concepts 1Definitions and terminology 3Will we run out of minerals? 5Geological assessment 6Considerations of supply and demand 6Recycling and reuse of metals 9The concept of criticality 10Assessments of criticality 11Improving criticality assessment 14Implications of criticality for corporate and governmental policy 16Outlining this book 16Acknowledgements 17Note 18References 182 The mining industry and the supply of critical minerals 20David HumphreysSuppliers of minerals – miners and explorers 21Industry dynamics 23Constraints on mineral supply response 27Natural constraints 27Economic constraints 29Institutional constraints 31Critical minerals and the role of China 34Policy issues 38Notes 39References 393 Recycling of (critical) metals 41Christian HagelükenRationale and benefits 41The urban mine 41Recycling benefits 43Status and challenges of recycling critical metals 45The metals life cycle 45Waste and resource legislation 47The recycling value chain 47Recycling challenges 48The seven conditions for effective recycling 50Recycling technologies 51Collection and pre-processing 52Metallurgical recovery 54Status of recycling of the EU critical metals 57The significance of life-cycle structures 58Case study 1: Industrial PGM applications 59Case study 2: Automotive PGM applications 60Case study 3: Electronic PGM applications 60Global flows of old products 60Differences in recycling rates and pathways for improvement 61Conclusion and the way forward 62Innovation needs 62Resource security as a societal driver for recycling 64Mining and recycling as complementary systems 64Conclusions 66Notes 66References 674 Antimony 70Ulrich Schwarz-SchamperaIntroduction 70Definitions and characteristics 70Abundance in the Earth 71Mineralogy 71Major deposit classes 72Gold–antimony (epithermal) deposits 74Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein and carbonate replacement deposits 77Reduced magmatic gold systems 78Extraction methods and processing 78Mining 78Ore processing beneficiation and conversion to metal 79Specifications 82Uses 82Antimony trioxide 84Sodium antimonate 84Other non-metallurgical uses 85Antimony metal 85Recycling 85Substitution 86Resources and reserves 86Production 87Projects under development 90World trade 91Prices 92Environmental aspects 94Outlook 95References 965 Beryllium 99David L. Trueman and Phillip SabeyIntroduction 99Properties of beryllium 99Distribution and abundance in the Earth’s crust 100Uses of beryllium 100Alloys containing less than 2% beryllium especially copper–beryllium 101Pure beryllium metal and alloys containing over 60% beryllium 102Beryllia (BeO) ceramics 103World production 103World trade 105World resources 106Mineralogy of beryllium 106Beryllium deposits 107Pegmatite deposits 107Hydrothermal deposits 110Mining and processing of beryllium 110Beryl ores 110Bertrandite ores 110Processing of beryl and bertrandite to beryllium hydroxide 111Production of metal and alloys from beryllium hydroxide 113Production of beryllium oxide from beryllium hydroxide 113Recycling 115Substitution 116Environmental aspects 116Prices 118Outlook 118Note 119References 1196 Cobalt 122Stephen Roberts and Gus GunnIntroduction 122Physical and chemical properties 122Distribution and abundance in the Earth 122Mineralogy 122Deposit types 123Hydrothermal deposits 123Magmatic deposits 129Laterites 130Manganese nodules and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on the seafloor 132Extraction processing and refining 134Cobalt from nickel sulfide ores 134Contentsvii Cobalt from nickel laterite ores 134Cobalt from copper–cobalt ores in DRC and Zambia 135Other sources of cobalt 136World production and trade 138Resources and reserves 139uses 140Recycling 142Substitution 142Environmental issues 143Prices 144Outlook 144Acknowledgements 146Notes 146References 1467 Gallium 150Thomas Butcher and Teresa BrownIntroduction 150Physical and chemical properties 150Mineralogy and distribution 150Sources of gallium 151Bauxite 151Sphalerite (ZnS) 151Other geological settings 152Recovery methods and refining 152Primary recovery 152Secondary recovery 153Refining and purification 155Gallium in GaAs semiconductors 155Specifications and uses 157Gallium metal 157Gallium antimonide 157Gallium arsenide 157Gallium chemicals 159Gallium nitride 160Gallium phosphide 162Photovoltaics 162Substitution 163Environmental aspects 163World resources and production 164Production in 2010 164Future supplies 166World trade 167Prices 167Outlook 170Acknowledgements 171References 1728 Germanium 177Frank Melcher and Peter BuchholzIntroduction 177Physical and chemical properties 177Distribution and abundance in the Earth 177Mineralogy 178Deposit types 179Accumulation of germanium in sulfide deposits 181Enrichment of germanium in lignite and coal 185Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 186Extraction 186Processing 186Specifications 188Germanium tetrachloride GeCl 4  188Germanium dioxide GeO 2  188First reduction metal 188Production of zone-refined metal (‘intrinsic’ metal) 188Single crystals 188Uses 189Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 189Substitution 191Environmental aspects of the life cycle of germanium and its products 192Resources and reserves 192Production 194Future supplies 196World trade 197Prices 197Outlook 198Supply challenges 198Demand drivers 199Supply and demand scenario 200Acknowledgments 200Notes 200References 2009 Indium 204Ulrich Schwarz-SchamperaIntroduction 204Physical and chemical properties 204Abundance in the Earth’s crust 205Mineralogy 205Major deposit classes 206Base-metal sulfide deposits 209Polymetallic vein-type deposits 209Base-metal-rich tin–tungsten and skarn deposits 210Base-metal-rich epithermal deposits 210Extraction methods and processing 210Mining 210Processing beneficiation and conversion to metal 212Indium production from copper ores 213Indium production from tin ores 214Indium recovery from secondary sources 214Specifications and uses 214Indium–tin oxide (ITO) 215Alloys and solders 215Semiconductors 216Others 216Resources and reserves 217Production 218Production from residues and scrap 220Projects under development 221Abandoned production 221World trade 222Prices 223Recycling and substitution 224Environmental aspects 225Outlook 226References 22710 Lithium 230Keith EvansIntroduction 230Properties and abundance in the Earth 230Mineralogy and deposit types 230Pegmatites 232Continental brines 232Geothermal brines 234Oilfield brines 234Hectorite 234Jadarite 235Extraction methods and processing 236Specification and uses 238Recycling 240Substitution 240Environmental factors 241World resources and production 241Reserves and resources 241Production 244Current producers 245Production costs 248Future supplies 249Pegmatite-based projects 249Continental brines 250Geothermal brine 251Oilfield brine 251Hectorite 252Jadarite 253World trade 253Prices 254Outlook 255Acknowledgements 258Notes 258References 25811 Magnesium 261Neale R. Neelameggham and Bob BrownIntroduction 261Physical and chemical properties 261Distribution and abundance in the Earth 262Mineralogy 262Deposit types 263Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 263Nineteenth-century magnesium production processes 266Commercial magnesium production processes of the twentieth century 266Specifications and uses 267Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 269Substitution 271Environmental aspects 272Non-greenhouse-gas regulations – electrolytic magnesium production 272Non-greenhouse-gas regulations – thermal magnesium 273Greenhouse-gas emission studies 273Contentsix World resources and production 275Future supplies 277World trade 277Prices 277Outlook 279References 28112 Platinum-group metals 284Gus GunnIntroduction 284Properties and abundance in the Earth 284Mineralogy 285Major deposit classes 285PGM-dominant deposits 286Nickel–copper-dominant deposits 292Other deposit types 293Extraction and processing 294Extraction methods 294Processing 294Specifications and uses 297Uses of platinum palladium and rhodium 297Uses of ruthenium iridium and osmium 300Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 300Substitution 301Environmental issues 301World resources and production 302Resources and reserves 302Production 302World trade 304Prices 306Outlook 306Acknowledgements 309Note 309References 31013 Rare earth elements 312Frances WallIntroduction 312Physical and chemical properties 312Distribution and abundance in the Earth’s crust 313Mineralogy 315Deposit types 317Carbonatite-related REE deposits 319Alkaline igneous rocks 323Other hydrothermal veins 324Iron oxide–apatite deposits including iron-oxide–copper–gold (IOCG) deposits 324Placer deposits (mineral sands) 324Ion adsorption deposits 324Seafloor deposits 325By-products co-products and waste products 325Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 325Mining 325Beneficiation 325Extraction and separation of the REE 327Specifications and uses 328Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 328Substitution 330Environmental aspects 330World resources and production 331Future supplies 332World trade 333Prices 334Outlook 336Note 337References 33714 Rhenium 340Tom A. Millensifer Dave Sinclair Ian Jonasson and Anthony LipmannIntroduction 340Physical and chemical properties 340Distribution and abundance 341Mineralogy 341Deposit types 342Porphyry deposits 342Vein deposits 345Sediment-hosted copper deposits 345Uranium deposits 346Magmatic nickel–copper–platinumgroup element (PGE) deposits 346World resources and production 346Future supplies 348Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 350Specifications and uses 352Recycling and re-use 354Catalysts 354Superalloys 355Substitution 355Environmental issues 356World trade 356Prices 357Outlook 358References 35915 Tantalum and niobium 361Robert Linnen David L. Trueman and Richard BurtIntroduction 361Physical and chemical properties 361Distribution and abundance in the Earth 361Mineralogy 362Deposit types 363Carbonatite deposits 363Alkaline to peralkaline granites and syenites 367Peraluminous pegmatites 368Peraluminous granites 370Extraction methods and processing 371Specifications and uses 374Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 375Substitution 375Environmental aspects of niobium and tantalum 376Geopolitical aspects 376World resources and production 377Future supplies 379Prices 380Outlook 381Note 382References 38216 Tungsten 385Teresa Brown and Peter PitfieldIntroduction 385Physical and chemical properties 385Distribution and abundance in the Earth’s crust 385Mineralogy 386Deposit types 386Vein/stockwork deposits 387Skarn deposits 389Disseminated or greisen deposits 390Porphyry deposits 390Breccia deposits 391Stratabound deposits 391Pegmatite deposits 392Pipe deposits 392Hot-spring deposits 392Placer deposits 392Brine/evaporite deposits 392Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 392Extraction 392Processing 393Specifications and uses 395Specifications 395Uses 396Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 398Old scrap 398New scrap 398Unrecovered scrap 399Recycling methods 399Substitution 399Environmental aspects of the life cycle of the metal and its products 399World resources and production 400Resources and reserves 400Production 401Future supplies 402World trade 404Prices 406Outlook 406Acknowledgements 409References 409Appendices 414Glossary of technical terms 419Index 431