Bridge Design

António J. Reis ibecame a Civil Engineer at IST - University of Lisbon in 1972 and obtained his Ph.D at the University of Waterloo in Canada in 1977. He was Science Research Fellow at the University of Surrey, UK, and Professor of Bridges and Structural Engineering at the University of Lisbon for more than 35 years. Reis was also Visiting Professor at EPFL Lausanne Switzerland in 2013 and 2015. In 1980, he established his own design office GRID where he is currently Technical Director and was responsible for the design of more than 200 bridges. The academic and design experience were always combined in developing and supervising research studies and innovative design aspects in the field of steel and concrete bridges, cable stayed bridges, long span roofs and stability of steel structures. A. Reis has design studies and projects in more than 20 countries, namely in Europe, Middle East and Africa and presented more than 150 publications. He received several awards at international level from IABSE, ECCS, ICE and Royal Academy of Sciences of Belgium. José J. Oliveira Pedro became a Civil Engineer at IST - University of Lisbon in 1991, concluding his Master's degree in 1995 and Ph.D in 2007, with the thesis "Structural analysis of composite steel-concrete cable-stayed bridges". He joined the Civil Engineering Department of IST in 1990, as a Student Lecturer, and is currently Assistant Professor of Bridges, Design of Structures and Special Structures. In 1999, he was Researcher at Liège University / Bureau d'Etudes Greisch and, in 2015, Visiting Professor at EPFL Lausanne. In 1991, he joined design office GRID Consulting Engineers, and since then is very much involved in the structural design of bridges and viaducts, stadiums, long span halls and other large structures. He is the author/ co-author of over seventy publications in scientific journals and conference proceedings. In 2013, he received the Baker medal, and in 2017 the John Henry Garrood King Medal, from the Institute of Civil Engineers, for the best paper published in Bridge Engineering journal.

• About the Authors xiiiPreface xvAcknowledgements xvii1 Introduction 11.1 Generalities 11.2 Definitions and Terminology 11.3 Bridge Classification 41.4 Bridge Typology 61.5 Some Historical References 161.5.1 Masonry Bridges 161.5.2 Timber Bridges 181.5.3 Metal Bridges 181.5.4 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Bridges 241.5.5 Cable Supported Bridges 28References 302 Bridge Design: Site Data and Basic Conditions 312.1 Design Phases and Methodology 312.2 Basic Site Data 322.2.1 Generalities 322.2.2 Topographic Data 322.2.3 Geological and Geotechnical Data 352.2.4 Hydraulic Data 362.2.5 Other Data 382.3 Bridge Location. Alignment, Bridge Length and Hydraulic Conditions 382.3.1 The Horizontal and Vertical Alignments 422.3.2 The Transverse Alignment 462.4 Elements Integrated in Bridge Decks 492.4.1 Road Bridges 492.4.1.1 Surfacing and Deck Waterproofing 502.4.1.2 Walkways, Parapets and Handrails 502.4.1.3 Fascia Beams 532.4.1.4 Drainage System 542.4.1.5 Lighting System 552.4.1.6 Expansion Joints 552.4.2 Railway Decks 582.4.2.1 Track System 592.4.2.2 Power Traction System (Catenary System) 612.4.2.3 Footways, Parapets/Handrails, Drainage and Lighting Systems 61References 613 Actions and Structural Safety 633.1 Types of Actions and Limit State Design 633.2 Permanent Actions 653.3 Highway Traffic Loading – Vertical Forces 683.4 Braking, Acceleration and Centrifugal Forces in Highway Bridges 723.5 Actions on Footways or Cycle Tracks and Parapets, of Highway Bridges 743.6 Actions for Abutments and Walls Adjacent to Highway Bridges 753.7 Traffic Loads for Railway Bridges 763.7.1 General 763.7.2 Load Models 763.8 Braking, Acceleration and Centrifugal Forces in Railway Bridges: Nosing Forces 773.9 Actions on Maintenance Walkways and Earth Pressure Effects for Railway Bridges 783.10 Dynamic Load Effects 793.10.1 Basic Concepts 793.10.2 Dynamic Effects for Railway Bridges 823.11 Wind Actions and Aerodynamic Stability of Bridges 843.11.1 Design Wind Velocities and Peak Velocities Pressures 843.11.2 Wind as a Static Action on Bridge Decks and Piers 893.11.3 Aerodynamic Response: Basic Concepts 913.11.3.1 Vortex Shedding 943.11.3.2 Divergent Amplitudes: Aerodynamic Instability 953.12 Hydrodynamic Actions 983.13 Thermal Actions and Thermal Effects 993.13.1 Basic Concepts 993.13.2 Thermal Effects 1023.13.3 Design Values 1073.14 Shrinkage, Creep and Relaxation in Concrete Bridges 1093.15 Actions Due to Imposed Deformations. Differential Settlements 1173.16 Actions Due to Friction in Bridge Bearings 1193.17 Seismic Actions 1193.17.1 Basis of Design 1193.17.2 Response Spectrums for Bridge Seismic Analysis 1213.18 Accidental Actions 1243.19 Actions During Construction 1243.20 Basic Criteria for Bridge Design 125References 1254 Conceptual Design and Execution Methods 1294.1 Concept Design: Introduction 1294.2 Span Distribution and Deck Continuity 1314.2.1 Span Layout 1314.2.2 Deck Continuity and Expansion Joints 1324.3 The Influence of the Execution Method 1344.3.1 A Prestressed Concrete Box Girder Deck 1344.3.2 A Steel‐Concrete Composite Steel Deck 1364.3.3 Concept Design and Execution: Preliminary Conclusions 1364.4 Superstructure: Concrete Bridges 1384.4.1 Options for the Bridge Deck 1384.4.2 The Concrete Material – Main Proprieties 1394.4.2.1 Concrete 1394.4.2.2 Reinforcing Steel 1404.4.2.3 Prestressing Steel 1404.4.3 Slab and Voided Slab Decks 1424.4.4 Ribbed Slab and Slab‐Girder Decks 1444.4.5 Precasted Slab‐Girder Decks 1524.4.6 Box Girder Decks 1554.5 Superstructure: Steel and Steel‐Concrete Composite Bridges 1604.5.1 Options for Bridge Type: Plated Structures 1604.5.2 Steels for Metal Bridges and Corrosion Protection 1664.5.2.1 Materials and Weldability 1664.5.2.2 Corrosion Protection 1724.5.3 Slab Deck: Concrete Slabs and Orthotropic Plates 1734.5.3.1 Concrete Slab Decks 1744.5.3.2 Steel Orthotropic Plate Decks 1764.5.4 Plate Girder Bridges 1794.5.4.1 Superstructure Components 1794.5.4.2 Preliminary Design of the Main Girders 1824.5.4.3 Vertical Bracing System 1884.5.4.4 Horizontal Bracing System 1914.5.5 Box Girder Bridges 1924.5.5.1 General 1924.5.5.2 Superstructure Components 1934.5.5.3 Pre‐Design of Composite Box Girder Sections 1964.5.5.4 Pre‐Design of Diaphragms or Cross Frames 1994.5.6 Typical Steel Quantities 2014.6 Superstructure: Execution Methods 2024.6.1 General Aspects 2024.6.2 Execution Methods for Concrete Decks 2034.6.2.1 General 2034.6.2.2 Scaffoldings and Falseworks 2034.6.2.3 Formwork Launching Girders 2064.6.2.4 Incremental Launching 2064.6.2.5 Cantilever Construction 2124.6.2.6 Precasted Segmental Cantilever Construction 2214.6.2.7 Other Methods 2224.6.3 Erection Methods for Steel and Composite Bridges 2234.6.3.1 Erection Methods, Transport and Erection Joints 2234.6.3.2 Erection with Cranes Supported from the Ground 2244.6.3.3 Incremental Launching 2244.6.3.4 Erection by the Cantilever Method 2274.6.3.5 Other Methods 2274.7 Substructure: Conceptual Design and Execution Methods 2294.7.1 Elements and Functions 2294.7.2 Bridge Piers 2294.7.2.1 Structural Materials and Pier Typology 2294.7.2.2 Piers Pre‐Design 2324.7.2.3 Execution Method of the Deck and Pier Concept Design 2334.7.2.4 Construction Methods for Piers 2404.7.3 Abutments 2414.7.3.1 Functions of the Abutments 2414.7.3.2 Abutment Concepts and Typology 2414.7.4 Bridge Foundations 2454.7.4.1 Foundation Typology 2454.7.4.2 Direct Foundations 2454.7.4.3 Pile Foundations 2464.7.4.4 Special Bridge Foundations 2474.7.4.5 Bridge Pier Foundations in Rivers 250References 2515 Aesthetics and Environmental Integration 2555.1 Introduction 2555.2 Integration and Formal Aspects 2565.3 Bridge Environment 2565.4 Shape and Function 2585.5 Order and Continuity 2605.6 Slenderness and Transparency 2625.7 Symmetries, Asymmetries and Proximity with Other Bridges 2665.8 Piers Aesthetics 2675.9 Colours, Shadows, and Detailing 2685.10 Urban Bridges 272References 2776 Superstructure: Analysis and Design 2796.1 Introduction 2796.2 Structural Models 2806.3 Deck Slabs 2836.3.1 General 2836.3.2 Overall Bending: Shear Lag Effects 2836.3.3 Local Bending Effects: Influence Surfaces 2876.3.4 Elastic Restraint of Deck Slabs 2956.3.5 Transverse Prestressing of Deck Slabs 2976.3.6 Steel Orthotropic Plate Decks 3006.4 Transverse Analysis of Bridge Decks 3016.4.1 Use of Influence Lines for Transverse Load Distribution 3016.4.2 Transverse Load Distribution Coefficients for Load Effects 3026.4.3 Transverse Load Distribution Methods 3036.4.3.1 Rigid Cross Beam Methods: Courbon Method 3046.4.3.2 Transverse Load Distribution on Cross Beams 3076.4.3.3 Extensions of the Courbon Method: Influence of Torsional Stiffness of Main Girders and Deformability of Cross Beams 3076.4.3.4 The Orthotropic Plate Approach 3086.4.3.5 Other Transverse Load Distribution Methods 3136.5 Deck Analysis by Grid and FEM Models 3136.5.1 Grid Models 3136.5.1.1 Fundamentals 3136.5.1.2 Deck Modelling 3156.5.1.3 Properties of Beam Elements in Grid Models 3176.5.1.4 Limitations and Extensions of Plane Grid Modelling 3186.5.2 FEM Models 3186.5.2.1 Fundamentals 3186.5.2.2 FEM for Analysis of Bridge Decks 3236.6 Longitudinal Analysis of the Superstructure 3296.6.1 Generalities – Geometrical Non‐Linear Effects: Cables and Arches 3296.6.2 Frame and Arch Effects 3326.6.3 Effect of Longitudinal Variation of Cross Sections 3346.6.4 Torsion Effects in Bridge Decks – Non‐Uniform Torsion 3366.6.5 Torsion in Steel‐Concrete Composite Decks 3436.6.5.1 Composite Box Girder Decks 3436.6.5.2 Composite Plate Girder Decks 3456.6.5.3 Transverse Load Distribution in Open Section Decks 3486.6.6 Curved Bridges 3506.6.6.1 Statics of Curved Bridges 3506.6.6.2 Simply Supported Curved Bridge Deck 3526.6.6.3 Approximate Method 3536.6.6.4 Bearing System and Deck Elongations 3536.7 Influence of Construction Methods on Superstructure Analysis 3556.7.1 Span by Span Erection of Prestressed Concrete Decks 3566.7.2 Cantilever Construction of Prestressed Concrete Decks 3576.7.3 Prestressed Concrete Decks with Prefabricated Girders 3606.7.4 Steel‐Concrete Composite Decks 3616.8 Prestressed Concrete Decks: Design Aspects 3646.8.1 Generalities 3646.8.2 Design Concepts and Basic Criteria 3646.8.3 Durability 3646.8.4 Concept of Partial Prestressed Concrete (PPC) 3646.8.5 Particular Aspects of Bridges Built by Cantilevering 3656.8.6 Ductility and Precasted Segmental Construction 3666.8.6.1 Internal and External Prestressing 3676.8.7 Hyperstatic Prestressing Effects 3676.8.8 Deflections, Vibration and Fatigue 3686.9 Steel and Composite Decks 3736.9.1 Generalities 3736.9.2 Design Criteria for ULS 3736.9.3 Design Criteria for SLS 3756.9.3.1 Stress Limitations and Web Breathing 3766.9.3.2 Deflection Limitations and Vibrations 3776.9.4 Design Criteria for Fatigue Limit State 3776.9.5 Web Design of Plate and Box Girder Sections 3836.9.5.1 Web Under in Plane Bending and Shear Forces 3836.9.5.2 Flange Induced Buckling 3856.9.5.3 Webs Under Patch Loading 3876.9.5.4 Webs under Interaction of Internal Forces 3896.9.6 Transverse Web Stiffeners 3906.9.7 Stiffened Panels in Webs and Flanges 3916.9.8 Diaphragms 3946.10 Reference to Special Bridges: Bowstring Arches and Cable‐Stayed Bridges 3956.10.1 Generalities 3956.10.2 Bowstring Arch Bridges 3966.10.2.1 Geometry, Slenderness and Stability 3966.10.2.2 Hanger System and Anchorages 4026.10.2.3 Analysis of the Superstructure 4036.10.3 Cable‐Stayed Bridges 4046.10.3.1 Basic Concepts 4046.10.3.2 Total and Partial Adjustment Staying Options 4086.10.3.3 Deck Slenderness, Static and Aerodynamic Stability 4116.10.3.4 Stays and Stay Cable Anchorages 4146.10.3.5 Analysis of the Superstructure 416References 4187 Substructure: Analysis and Design 4237.1 Introduction 4237.2 Distribution of Forces Between Piers and Abutments 4237.2.1 Distribution of a Longitudinal Force 4237.2.2 Action Due to Imposed Deformations 4247.2.3 Distribution of a Transverse Horizontal Force 4257.2.4 Effect of Deformation of Bearings and Foundations 4297.3 Design of Bridge Bearings 4307.3.1 Bearing Types 4307.3.2 Elastomeric Bearings 4307.3.3 Neoprene‐Teflon Bridge Bearings 4347.3.4 Elastomeric ‘Pot Bearings’ 4357.3.5 Metal Bearings 4377.3.6 Concrete Hinges 4397.4 Reference to Seismic Devices 4417.4.1 Concept 4417.4.2 Seismic Dampers 4417.5 Abutments: Analysis and Design 4447.5.1 Actions and Design Criteria 4447.5.2 Front and Wing Walls 4467.5.3 Anchored Abutments 4487.6 Bridge Piers: Analysis and Design 4497.6.1 Basic Concepts 4497.6.1.1 Pre‐design 4497.6.1.2 Slenderness and Elastic Critical Load 4497.6.1.3 The Effect of Geometrical Initial Imperfections 4507.6.1.4 The Effect of Cracking in Concrete Bridge Piers 4507.6.1.5 Bridge Piers as ‘Beam Columns’ 4517.6.1.6 The Effect of Imposed Displacements 4527.6.1.7 The Overall Stability of a Bridge Structure 4537.6.1.8 Design Bucking Length of Bridge Piers 4537.6.2 Elastic Analysis of Bridge Piers 4547.6.3 Elastoplastic Analysis of Bridge Piers: Ultimate Resistance 4597.6.4 Creep Effects on Concrete Bridge Piers 4657.6.5 Analysis of Bridge Piers by Numerical Methods 4657.6.6 Overall Stability of a Bridge Structure 471References 4738 Design Examples: Concrete and Composite Options 4758.1 Introduction 4758.2 Basic Data and Bridge Options 4758.2.1 Bridge Function and Layout 4758.2.2 Typical Deck Cross Sections 4768.2.3 Piers, Abutments and Foundations 4778.2.4 Materials Adopted 4778.2.4.1 Prestressed Concrete Deck 4788.2.4.2 Steel‐concrete Composite Deck 4818.2.5 Deck Construction 4818.3 Hazard Scenarios and Actions 4818.3.1 Limit States and Structural Safety 4828.3.2 Actions 4828.3.2.1 Permanent Actions and Imposed Deformations 4828.3.2.2 Variable Actions 4848.4 Prestressed Concrete Solution 4868.4.1 Preliminary Design of the Deck 4868.4.2 Structural Analysis and Slab Checks 4868.4.3 Structural Analysis of the Main Girders 4928.4.3.1 Traffic Loads: Transverse and Longitudinal Locations 4938.4.3.2 Internal Forces 4978.4.3.3 Prestressing Layout and Hyperstatic Effects 4978.4.3.4 Influence of the Construction Stages 4988.4.4 Structural Safety Checks: Longitudinal Direction 4988.4.4.1 Decompression Limit State – Prestressing Design 4988.4.4.2 Ultimate Limit States – Bending and Shear Resistance 5018.5 Steel–Concrete Composite Solution 5028.5.1 Preliminary Design of the Deck 5028.5.2 Structural Analysis and Slab Design Checks 5038.5.3 Structural Analysis of the Main Girders 5038.5.3.1 Traffic Loads Transverse and Longitudinal Positioning 5048.5.3.2 Internal Forces 5058.5.3.3 Shrinkage Effects 5058.5.3.4 Imposed Deformation Effect 5068.5.3.5 Influence of the Construction Stages 5068.5.4 Safety Checks: Longitudinal Direction 5078.5.4.1 Ultimate Limit States – Bending and Shear Resistance 5078.5.4.2 Serviceability Limit States – Stresses and Crack Widths Control 509References 510Annex A: Buckling and Ultimate Strength of Flat Plates 511A.1 Critical Stresses and Buckling Modes of Flat Plates 511A.1.1 Plate Simply Supported along the four Edges and under a Uniform Compression (ψ = 1) 511A.1.2 Bending of Long Rectangular Plates Supported at both Longitudinal Edges or with a Free Edge 513A.1.3 Buckling of Rectangular Plates under Shear 513A.2 Buckling of Stiffened Plates 514A.2.1 Plates with One Longitudinal Stiffener at the Centreline under Uniform Compression 515A.2.2 Plate with Two Stiffeners under Uniform Compression 516A.2.3 Plates with Three or More Longitudinal Stiffeners 517A.2.4 Stiffened Plates under Variable Compression. Approximate Formulas 518A.3 Post‐Buckling Behaviour and Ultimate Strength of Flat Plates 518A.3.1 Effective Width Concept 519A.3.2 Effective Width Formulas 520References 523Index 525