Carl F. Graumann – författare

In this volume, prominent American and European scholars explore the historical shaping of psychological discourse. Speaking from several disciplinary standpoints, attention is directed to the ideological, intellectual, political, economic and literary forces that enter into the cultural construction of mental life. In its explorations, the volume not only challenges the reality of the taken for granted world of everyday life, but raises fundamental questions concerning the potential of psychological science to establish historically independent knowledge of mental process. Contributions to the volume treat a variety of subjects, including the emotions, cognition, the concept of child development, psychotherapy, gender differences and knowledge. Additional chapters represent first-hand accounts of historical change in psychological movements.

In this volume, prominent American and European scholars explore the historical shaping of psychological discourse. Speaking from several disciplinary standpoints, attention is directed to the ideological, intellectual, political, economic and literary forces that enter into the cultural construction of mental life. In its explorations, the volume not only challenges the reality of the taken for granted world of everyday life, but raises fundamental questions concerning the potential of psychological science to establish historically independent knowledge of mental process. Contributions to the volume treat a variety of subjects, including the emotions, cognition, the concept of child development, psychotherapy, gender differences and knowledge. Additional chapters represent first-hand accounts of historical change in psychological movements.

Dialogue has developed from more primitive forms of social communication in the course of evolution. In Mutualities in Dialogue, 'dialogue' refers to face-to-face interaction between two or more individuals using a system of signs. It asks the question, 'what is it that we share in the course of a dialogue?', arguing that mutualities of language, culture and some interpersonal information are prerequisite for effective communication. Even in instances of noncooperation or of asymmetrical dialogue - such as attempts to persuade, manipulate or blame - elementary commonalities must be present. Mutualities in Dialogue focuses on the dyad rather than the interacting individuals. It includes chapters on mutualities in preverbal and nonverbal communication, establishing and maintaining mutuality, problems of mutuality and understanding, and dialogues with speech-impaired partners.

Dialogue has developed from more primitive forms of social communication in the course of evolution. In Mutualities in Dialogue, 'dialogue' refers to face-to-face interaction between two or more individuals using a system of signs. It asks the question, 'what is it that we share in the course of a dialogue?', arguing that mutualities of language, culture and some interpersonal information are prerequisite for effective communication. Even in instances of noncooperation or of asymmetrical dialogue - such as attempts to persuade, manipulate or blame - elementary commonalities must be present. Mutualities in Dialogue focuses on the dyad rather than the interacting individuals. It includes chapters on mutualities in preverbal and nonverbal communication, establishing and maintaining mutuality, problems of mutuality and understanding, and dialogues with speech-impaired partners.

The study of stereotyping and prejudice is a study of human nature, group mem­ bership, and intergroup relationships. It sheds light on each of these aspects of social psychology. With respect to the first two, it has been observed that since groups provide the best framework for satisfying various human needs, individuals continuously organize themselves in collectives. They belong to a variety of groups-many of which they voluntarily select and some to which they are ascribed. Group membership, therefore, is one of the most salient and important of an indi­ vidual''s characteristics. The implication of this characteristic is that human beings not only constantly classify other people into group categories, either by identifying membership or constructing their own categories, but also judge and evaluate them on this basis. The stereotypes and prejudice are outcomes of this process. They are the beliefs and attitudes toward members of another group. In addition, the study of stereotyping and prejudice reflects an interest in inter­ group relationships. While we recognize that a discussion of intergroup relation­ ships may focus on behaviors describing actions such as confrontations, violence, wars, cooperation, alliance, negotiation, or coordination, we also believe that each of these intergroup behaviors is mediated by perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes. In the case of intergroup behaviors, the listed actions are not performed instinctively or mindlessly, but are preceded by cognitive processes which, among other outputs, involve the formation of stereotypes and prejudice toward the other group.

The contents of the first two volumes were, we gladly admit, at once more familiar and easier to handle. We were concerned with mass and leadership psychology, two factors that we know from social and political life. They have been much studied and we can clearly trace their evolution. However, since actions by masses and leaders also have an intellectual and emotional side, we were obliged, in some way or other, to deal with this topic as well. It was obviously necessary, it seemed to us, to approach this study from a new and significant angle. One cannot escape the realiza­ tion that "conspiracy theory" has played, and continues to play, a central role in our epoch, and has had very serious consequences. The obsession with conspiracy has spread to such an extent that it continuously crops up at all levels of society. The fol­ lowing paradox must be striking to anyone: In the past, society was governed by a small number of men, at times by one individual, who, within traditional limits, imposed his will on the multitude. Plots were effective: By eliminating these individuals and their families, one could change the course of events. Today, this is no longer the case. Power is divided among parties and extends throughout society. Power flows, changes hands, and affects opinion, which no one controls and no one represents entirely.

The study of stereotyping and prejudice is a study of human nature, group mem­ bership, and intergroup relationships. It sheds light on each of these aspects of social psychology. With respect to the first two, it has been observed that since groups provide the best framework for satisfying various human needs, individuals continuously organize themselves in collectives. They belong to a variety of groups-many of which they voluntarily select and some to which they are ascribed. Group membership, therefore, is one of the most salient and important of an indi­ vidual's characteristics. The implication of this characteristic is that human beings not only constantly classify other people into group categories, either by identifying membership or constructing their own categories, but also judge and evaluate them on this basis. The stereotypes and prejudice are outcomes of this process. They are the beliefs and attitudes toward members of another group. In addition, the study of stereotyping and prejudice reflects an interest in inter­ group relationships. While we recognize that a discussion of intergroup relation­ ships may focus on behaviors describing actions such as confrontations, violence, wars, cooperation, alliance, negotiation, or coordination, we also believe that each of these intergroup behaviors is mediated by perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes. In the case of intergroup behaviors, the listed actions are not performed instinctively or mindlessly, but are preceded by cognitive processes which, among other outputs, involve the formation of stereotypes and prejudice toward the other group.