Water Science, Policy and Management

SIMON J. DADSON, PHD, is Professor of Hydrology at the University of Oxford, and the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology and a Fellow of Christ Church. DUSTIN E. GARRICK, PHD, is an Associate Professor of Environmental Management at the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment and a Fellow of Green Templeton College. EDMUND C. PENNING-ROWSELL, PHD, is Professor of Geography and Pro Vice-Chancellor at Middlesex University, and a Visiting Academic at the School of Geography and the Environment at the University of Oxford. JIM W. HALL, PHD, FREng, is Professor of Climate and Environmental Risks in the School of Geography and the Environment and a Senior Research Fellow in the Department of Engineering Science at the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Linacre College. ROB HOPE, PHD, is Professor of Water Policy at the School of Geography and the Environment, and Director of the Water Programme at the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment. JOCELYNE HUGHES, PHD, is Departmental Lecturer and Course Director, for MSc/MPhil in Water Science, Policy and Management at the University of Oxford.

• List of Contributors xviiForeword xxiAcknowledgements xxiii1 Water Science, Policy, and Management: Introduction 1Simon J. Dadson, Edmund C. Penning‐Rowsell, Dustin E. Garrick, Rob Hope, Jim W. Hall, and Jocelyne Hughes1.1 Introduction 11.2 Drivers of Change: Environment, Politics, Economics 21.3 Responses to Change: Technology, Information, Equity 41.4 Science, Policy and Management 6Part I Water Science 92 Hydroclimatic Extremes and Climate Change 11Simon J. Dadson, Homero Paltan Lopez, Jian Peng, and Shuchi Vora2.1 Introduction 112.2 Key Concepts in Climate Science 122.2.1 The Water Cycle in the Earth System 122.2.2 Radiative Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere 122.2.3 Convection and Atmospheric Stability 132.2.4 The General Circulation 142.3 Hydroclimatic Variability and Extremes 142.3.1 Modes of Hydroclimatic Variability 142.3.2 El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 142.3.3 South Asian Monsoon 162.3.4 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) 162.3.5 Other Modes of Variability 172.4 Climate Change and Hydrology 182.4.1 Understanding the Link Between Climate Change and Hydroclimatic Extremes 182.4.2 Climate Models and Climate Projections 182.4.3 Downscaling and Uncertainty 192.5 Managing Hydroclimatic Extremes 202.5.1 Quantifying Risk and Uncertainty 202.5.2 Planning for Extremes in Flood Risk and Water Resources Management 222.5.3 Comparing Top‐down with Bottom‐up Approaches 222.6 Conclusion 25References 253 Groundwater Resources: Past, Present, and Future 29Abi Stone, Michelle Lanzoni, and Pauline Smedley3.1 Introduction to Groundwater Science 293.2 Quantities of Groundwater: Storage, Recharge, and Abstraction 313.2.1 What Do We Know? 313.2.2 Future Outlook on Measuring Groundwater Quantity 343.2.3 Improving Scientific Knowledge of Groundwater Volumes and Fluxes 393.3 Groundwater Quality 393.3.1 The Composition of Groundwater: Natural Baselines and Pollution 393.3.2 Future Outlook on Groundwater Water Quality: Key Constraints and Approaches to Addressing Them 453.4 Groundwater and Climate Change 483.4.1 Long‐term Climatic Influences on Groundwater 483.4.2 Current and Future Influences of Climate Change on Groundwater 483.5 Continuing Challenges for Groundwater Science 493.6 Concluding Points 50References 514 Water Quality Modelling, Monitoring, and Management 55Paul Whitehead, Michaela Dolk, Rebecca Peters, and Hannah Leckie4.1 Water Quality Modelling Background 554.1.1 Water Quality: The Problem 554.1.2 Management Model Approaches and History 564.1.3 Generic Types of Water Quality Models 574.1.4 Lumped Modelling Approaches 584.1.5 Case Study 1: Modelling of Metals Downstream of Mines in Transylvania 594.2 Water Quality Modelling at the Catchment Scale 594.2.1 Integrated Catchment Approach – A Brief Review 594.2.2 The Integrated Catchments (INCA) Model System 614.2.3 Case Study 2: Modelling Contaminants Using INCA – Metaldehyde in the Thames 624.2.4 Case Study 3: Water Quality in the Turag‐Balu River System, Dhaka, Bangladesh 624.2.5 Model Uncertainty 634.3 Monitoring Strategies Past and Present 654.3.1 Global Monitoring 664.3.2 National‐scale Monitoring 664.3.3 Long‐term Monitoring of Key Scientific Sites 664.3.4 Citizen Science Monitoring 684.3.5 Case Study 4: Monitoring and Modelling the Murray‐Darling System in Australia 684.4 Conclusions 70References 705 Challenges for Freshwater Ecosystems 75Jocelyne Hughes, Heather Bond, Clarke Knight, and Kieran Stanley5.1 How do Freshwater Ecosystems Work? 755.1.1 Structure and Function of Freshwater Ecosystems 755.1.2 Key Challenges in Freshwater Ecology 765.2 The Challenge of Water Quality Management: Linking Freshwater Ecosystems to Water Quality 785.2.1 ‘The Kidneys of the Landscape’ 785.2.2 Constructed Wetlands 785.2.3 Managing Freshwater Ecosystems for Water Quality Enhancement 815.3 The Challenge of Invasive Non‐native Species: Impacts on Diversity and Ecosystem Function 825.3.1 The Spread of Non‐native Freshwater Species 825.3.2 Impacts of INNS 825.3.3 What Can be Done About the Problem? 845.4 The Challenge of Environmental Change : Managing Biogeochemical Cycles and Water Security in Freshwaters 855.4.1 Impacts of Warming and Changing Atmospheric GHGs on Freshwaters 855.4.2 Environmental Flows 875.5 Approaches to Tackling the Challenges of Freshwater Ecosystem Conservation and Management 895.5.1 Technical Innovations 895.5.1.1 Environmental DNA 895.5.1.2 Remote Sensing Methods and Databases 895.5.2 Social Science Innovations 91References 926 Water and Health: A Dynamic, Enduring Challenge 97Katrina J. Charles, Saskia Nowicki, Patrick Thomson, and David Bradley6.1 Introduction 976.2 Classifying and Measuring Health Outcomes 976.3 Politics and Innovation in Water and Health 996.3.1 Measurement: Understanding the Role of Malnutrition and Infection in Diarrhoea 1006.3.2 Treatment: Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) 1006.3.3 Knowledge: Emerging Health Issues 1016.3.4 Politics and the Pace of Disruption 1016.4 Beyond Outbreaks: The Underreported Health Burden of Inadequate Water Supplies 1026.5 Enteric Environmental Dysfunction 1036.5.1 Visible Disease from Chemical Exposure 1036.5.2 Hypertension and Cancer 1056.5.3 Cognitive Impairment 1066.5.4 Psychosocial Distress 1076.5.5 Revisiting the Water‐Related Burden of Disease 1076.6 Water and Health Challenges in the SDG Period 1086.6.1 Improving Service Levels 1096.6.2 Improving Water Quality Testing Methods 1106.6.3 Leaving No One Behind 1116.7 Conclusions 112References 1137 Monitoring and Modelling Hydrological Processes 117Simon J. Dadson, Feyera Hirpa, Patrick Thomson, and Megan Konar7.1 Modelling Hydrological Systems: Current Approaches 1177.1.1 From Local Catchment Models to Global Hydrological Studies 1197.1.2 Validation, Verification, and Confirmation in Hydrological Modelling 1217.1.3 Representing Human‐managed Water Systems 1227.2 Monitoring Hydrological Systems 1247.2.1 Monitoring the Global Water Cycle Across Scales 1247.2.2 Decline of In Situ Monitoring 1257.2.3 The Role of EO 1267.2.4 Land‐based and Airborne Techniques 1277.2.5 Non‐traditional Hydrological Monitoring Systems 1287.3 Future Challenges 1287.4 Conclusion 129References 130Part II Policy 1398 Reallocating Water 141Dustin E. Garrick, Alice Chautard, and Jonathan Rawlins8.1 Water Crises as Allocation Challenges 1418.2 Navigating Reallocation 1428.3 Socio‐cultural Dimensions 1448.3.1 Navigating the Changing Culture of Water in Spain 1468.4 Natural and Technological Dimensions 1478.5 Political Economy Dimensions 1498.5.1 Barriers to Reallocation from Agriculture to the City of Cape Town 1518.6 A Ladder of Interventions? 1528.7 Frontiers of Water Allocation 153References 1549 Rural Water Policy in Africa and Asia 159Rob Hope, Tim Foster, Johanna Koehler, and Patrick Thomson9.1 Fifty Years of Rural Water Policy in Africa and Asia 1599.2 Pillars of Rural Water Policy 1609.3 Community Access, 1980–2000 1639.4 Rights and Results, 2000–2020 1669.5 Regulated Services, 2020–2030 1699.6 Limits to Progress 173References 17410 The Human Right to Water 181Rhett Larson, Kelsey Leonard, and Richard Rushforth10.1 The Legal and Historical Background of the Human Right to Water 18110.2 Defining the Human Right to Water 18510.2.1 Difference Between Human Right to Water and Water Rights 18710.3 Implementing the Human Right to Water 18810.4 Gap Between Policy Articulation and Implementation of the Human Right to Water 19010.5 Key Policy Challenges Facing the Human Right to Water 19210.6 Conclusion 193References 19311 Policy Processes in Flood Risk Management 197Edmund C. Penning‐Rowsell, Joanna Pardoe, Jim W. Hall, and Julie Self11.1 Introduction 19711.2 Flood Risk: Global and Local Scales 19811.3 Three Theories of the Policy Process 19911.3.1 Punctuated Equilibrium 19911.3.2 Multiple Streams 20011.3.3 Advocacy Coalitions 20111.4 Four Contrasting Case Studies of the Policy Process 20111.4.1 South Africa: 1994–2002 and Beyond 20111.4.2 Advocacy Coalitions in Bangladesh and the Role of Donor Agencies 20411.4.3 Flood Risk Management in Tanzania: The President as Policy Entrepreneur 20511.4.4 Flood Insurance in the UK: Six Decades of Relative Policy Stability 20711.5 Conclusions 210References 21112 The Political Economy of Wastewater in Europe 215Heather M. Smith and Gareth Walker12.1 Introduction 21512.2 Models of Service Delivery 21612.3 Wastewater as a Driver of Investment and Cost Recovery 21912.4 Case Studies – Paris and Ireland 22112.4.1 Paris 22112.4.2 Ireland 22412.5 Discussion and Conclusion 22612.5.1 The Hidden Role of Wastewater 22612.5.2 Emerging Needs and Opportunities in Wastewater 227References 22913 Drought Policy and Management 233Rachael McDonnell, Stephen Fragaszy, Troy Sternberg, and Swathi Veeravalli13.1 Introduction 23313.2 Drought, Aridity, Water Scarcity, and Desertification 23413.3 Climate Change and Drought 23713.4 Drought Policy and Management Development 23813.4.1 Drought Legislation 23813.4.2 Drought Policies 23913.4.3 Drought Governance 24013.5 The ‘Three Pillars’ of Drought Management 24013.5.1 Pillar 1: Drought Monitoring and Early Warning Systems 24113.5.2 Pillar 2: Drought Impact and Vulnerability Assessments 24113.5.3 Pillar 3: Drought Preparedness Planning 24213.5.4 A Range of Policy Instruments Including Insurance and Water Allocation Regimes 24313.6 Drought in Mongolia 24313.6.1 Pillars 1 and 2: Drought Monitoring, Impacts, and Vulnerability 24413.6.2 Pillar 3: Drought Preparedness, Mitigation, and Response Strategies 24513.7 The Example of the Middle East and North Africa Region 24513.7.1 Pillar 1: Technical and Institutional Drought Monitoring Challenges 24613.7.2 Pillars 2 and 3: Drought Management Institutional Coordination Challenges 24713.7.3 Building Resilience – The Moroccan Drought Insurance Example 24813.8 Discussion 24813.8.1 Case Studies Synthesis 24813.8.2 Future Directions for Research 24913.9 Conclusions 249References 250Part III Water Management 25514 Water Resource System Modelling and Decision Analysis 257Jim W. Hall, Edoardo Borgomeo, Mohammad Mortazavi‐Naeini, and Kevin Wheeler14.1 The Challenge of Sustainable Water Supply 25714.2 The Water Resource System Problem 25914.3 Dealing with Multiple Objectives 26114.4 Variability and Risk 26314.5 Uncertainty and Decisions 26414.6 Embedding Simulation Modelling in Practical Decision‐making 26614.7 The Expanding Boundaries of Water Resource Systems 26814.7.1 New Data Sources 26814.7.2 Economics 26814.7.3 Finance 26914.7.4 Society 26914.7.5 The Environment 26914.8 Conclusions 270References 27115 Financing Water Infrastructure 275Alex Money15.1 Introduction 27515.2 The Infrastructure Financing Challenge 27615.3 Bridging the Gap 27815.4 Stakeholder Collaboration and the Constructive Corporation 27915.5 Hybridity and Blended Finance 28015.6 Blended Returns on Investments in Infrastructure 28215.7 Water Infrastructure Portfolio Management 28315.8 Hybrid Income 28415.9 Synthesis 28515.10 Scaling the Model 28615.11 Conclusion 286References 28716 Wastewater: From a Toxin to a Valuable Resource 291David W.M. Johnstone, Saskia Nowicki, Abishek S. Narayan, and Ranu Sinha16.1 Introduction 29116.2 The Early Formative Years 29116.3 Early Full‐Scale Application and Process Development 29416.4 The Age of Understanding 29416.5 Some Important Legislative and Institutional Changes 29516.6 More Understanding and a Plethora of Processes 29616.7 The Question of Sludge 29816.7.1 Heavy Metals 29816.7.2 Toxic Organic Chemicals 29916.7.3 Pathogens 29916.8 A New Philosophy; A New Paradigm? 29916.8.1 Water 30016.8.2 Energy 30016.8.3 Fertilisers 30116.8.4 Phosphate 30116.8.5 Other Recoverable Materials 30116.9 The Uncollected and Untreated 30116.9.1 Sewers 30316.9.2 Innovative Institutional Arrangements 30316.10 ConcludingRemarks 303References 30517 A Road Map to Sustainable Urban Water Supply 309Michael Rouse and Nassim El Achi17.1 Introduction 30917.2 International Stimuli – What Has Been Achieved? 30917.2.1 A Brief History Before the Water Decade of 1981–1990 30917.2.2 The Water Decade 1981–1990 31017.2.3 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 31217.3 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 31217.3.1 Formation and Definitions 31217.3.2 Water and Sanitation as a Human Right 31317.4 Challenges to be Faced 31417.4.1 Sustained Political Commitment to Goal 31417.4.2 Reliable Data 31517.4.3 Effective Planning 31517.4.4 Water Resources 31717.4.5 Water Distribution 31817.4.6 City Planning 32017.4.7 Finance 32117.5 Reform Requirements 32117.5.1 Phnom Penh 32117.5.2 National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), Uganda 32217.5.3 Chile 32317.5.4 Singapore 32417.5.5 Conclusions 32417.6 Achieving Awareness of What Needs to Be Done 32517.7 An Outline Road Map to the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) on Water 325References 32618 Equity and Urban Water Security 329Katrina J. Charles, Thanti Octavianti, Erin Hylton, and Grace Remmington18.1 Introduction 32918.2 Urban Water Security: Framing the Global Challenge 33018.2.1 Urban Water Security 33018.2.2 The Importance of the Urban Space 33118.2.3 The Challenge of Water Security for Urban Spaces 33218.3 Trade‐offs in Urban Water Security 33418.3.1 The Water Security Challenge 33518.3.2 One Solution for a Complex Issue 33518.3.3 Universal and Equitable Development 33718.4 Inclusive Water Security: A Case Study of São Paulo’s Water 33918.5 Conclusions 340References 34119 Reflections on Water Security and Humanity 345David Grey19.1 Introduction 34519.2 Human Origins and Water: Then and Now 34619.2.1 African Beginnings 34619.2.2 The Nile 34619.2.3 The Tigris and Euphrates 34719.2.4 The Indus 34719.2.5 What Might We Learn from These Reflections? 34819.3 Water Security and Risk 34919.4 Eight Major Global Water Security Challenges 35119.4.1 The Dynamic Challenge of Water Security Risks in Changing Climates 35119.4.2 The Challenge of Water Supply and Sanitation 35219.4.3 The Challenge of Hunger 35219.4.4 The Challenge of Floods 35319.4.5 The Challenge of Drought 35319.4.6 The Challenge of International and Transboundary Waters 35419.4.7 The Challenge of ‘Spillovers’: From Local to Global 35519.4.8 The Challenge for the World’s ‘Low Latitude’ Regions 35519.5 Conclusions: Priorities and Pathways for Policy‐makers 35619.5.1 Three Priorities for Investment 35619.5.2 Pathways to Water Security 357References 35820 Charting the World’s Water Future? 363Simon J. Dadson, Edmund C. Penning‐Rowsell, Dustin E. Garrick, Rob Hope, Jim W. Hall , and Jocelyne Hughes20.1 Linking Water Science, Policy, and Management 36320.2 Charting the World’s Water Future: Five Key Challenges 36320.3 A Vision for Interdisciplinary Water Education 365Index 367