Research Recipes for Midwives

Caroline J. Hollins Martin, PhD, is a Professor and Subject Lead in Midwifery at Edinburgh Napier University, UK. She has decades of experience as an active midwifery researcher, is a teacher of research methods, and a supervisor of student midwives.

• About the Author xvForeword xviA Memorandum from the Author xviiAcknowledgements xxiv1 Introduction to Research Methods 11.1 What is Research? 11.1.1 Definition 11.2 Glossary of Research Terms 21.3 Ontology 31.3.1 Subjectivism 31.3.2 Relativism 31.3.3 Objectivism 31.4 Epistemology 41.4.1 The Theory of Knowledge 41.5 Generic Stages of the Research Process 51.5.1 The Hollins Martin 16- Step Model to Writing a Research Proposal 61.6 Triangulation 181.6.1 A Scientific Summary of Mixed Methods Research Follows 181.7 Introduction to Research Methods Chapter Summary 341.7.1 Chapter Conclusion 341.8 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 34Answers to Chapter 1 SAQs 362 Inductive Versus Deductive Approaches 372.1 Introduction to Inductive Versus Deductive Approaches 372.2 More About the (Quantitative) Deductive Approach 382.3 More About the (Qualitative) Inductive Approach 392.4 The Qualitative Versus Quantitative Debate 402.5 The Difference(s) Between Qualitative and Quantitative Data 412.5.1 All Qualitative Data can be Coded Quantitatively 412.5.2 All Quantitative Data is Based on Qualitative Judgements 422.6 Qualitative and Quantitative Assumptions 432.6.1 Chapter Conclusion 432.7 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQ) 44Answers to Chapter 2 SAQs 443 Literature Searching and How to Critique a Research Paper 453.1 Define the Term Literature Review 453.2 Outline the Purpose of Research 453.3 What is a Literature Review? 463.4 What is the Purpose of a Literature Review? 463.5 What Should a Literature Review Consist of? 463.5.1 Introduction 463.5.2 Body 473.5.3 Conclusion 483.6 Steps Involved in Writing a Literature Review 483.7 Outline the Four Stages of Developing a Literature Review 513.7.1 Setting the Topic in Context 523.7.2 Looking at Information Sources e.g. Search Tools 523.7.3 What Databases you are Going to Search 533.7.4 Identifying Relevant Studies using Predecided Search Terms 533.7.5 Using Information Sources 533.7.6 Results 543.7.7 Validation 553.7.8 Use of Appraisal Tools 553.7.9 The Author 563.7.10 Date of Publication 563.7.11 Edition or Revision 563.7.12 Publisher 563.7.13 Critiquing Models may be used to Analyse Primary Papers 57■ Box 3.1 Example of a Critiquing Model 573.7.14 Positioning of the Literature Review 583.7.15 Writing the Literature Review 583.8 What is a Research Critique? 623.9 Stages Involved in Critical Reading of Research Articles 623.10 Research Critiquing Model 633.11 Systematic Reviews 653.11.1 Types of Systematic Review 663.12 The Hollins Martin Research Critiquing Tool 663.13 Meta- Analysis 693.13.1 Advantages of Meta- Analysis 693.13.2 Steps Involved in a Meta- Analysis 703.13.3 Chapter Conclusion 713.14 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 71Answers to Chapter 3 SAQs 724 Stating the Objectives Aim(s) Research Question(s) Sub-Question(s) Hypotheses and Null Hypotheses of the Proposed Research Study 734.1 What is an Objective? 744.2 What is an Aim? 754.3 What is a Research Question? 754.3.1 Refining a Broad Topic into a Specific Researchable Question 754.4 What is a Hypothesis? 784.5 What is a Null Hypothesis? 794.6 Relationship Between the Null Hypothesis and the Thesis Statement 814.7 The Methods Section of the Research Proposal Will Follow 824.7.1 Chapter Conclusion 854.8 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 86Answers to Chapter 4 SAQs 865 Choosing an Appropriate Research Method (Recipe) to Answer the Question 875.1 Selecting an Appropriate Research Method (Recipe) to Answer Your Research Question 875.2 Choosing a Quantitative Method 885.3 Choosing a Qualitative Method 885.4 Selecting Which Research Method (Recipe) to Use 895.4.1 Considering Using a Quantitative Method (Recipe) 905.4.2 Features Associated with the Quantitative Approach 905.5 Descriptive Research Method 925.5.1 Epidemiology 925.5.2 Correlations 935.6 Experimental Research Method 945.6.1 Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) 955.6.2 Quasi- Experimental Research Method 95■ Box 5.1 An Example of a Quasi- Experimental Method 965.7 Survey Research Method 965.7.1 Quantitative Survey Research Method 975.7.2 Qualitative Survey Research Method 995.8 Action Research Method 1015.9 Clinical Audit Research Method 1035.9.1 Cycle of Stages Involved in Clinical Audit Research Method 103■ Box 5.2 A Notorious Clinical Audit Carried Out by Florence Nightingale 1035.9.2 Standard- Based Audit Method 1045.9.3 Critical Incident Audit Method 1055.10 Grounded Theory Research Method 1065.10.1 Writing a Methodology for Grounded Theory 1085.10.2 Example Philosophy Underpinning Grounded Theory Research Method 1085.11 Phenomenology Research Method 1105.11.1 Writing a Methodology for Phenomenology 1115.11.2 Example Philosophy Underpinning Phenomenology Research Method Husserl 1115.11.3 Heidegger 1115.11.4 Intentionality 1125.11.5 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) 1125.12 Ethnography Research Method 1135.12.1 Features of Ethnographic Research Method 1145.12.2 Example Philosophy Underpinning Ethnography Research Method 1145.12.3 Questions to Help you Evaluate Your Recipe 1155.13 Case Study Research Method 1155.13.1 Case Selection 1165.13.2 Postscript 1175.14 Triangulation 1175.15 A Summary of How Papers are Written 1185.15.1 Chapter Conclusion 1185.16 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 120Answers to Chapter 5 SAQs 1216 Accessing Populations of Participants and Sampling Them 1226.1 Identifying the Appropriate Participants to Answer your Research Question(s) 1226.2 What is a Population? 1236.3 What is a Sample? 1236.4 Stages of the Sampling Process 1246.4.1 (Stage 1) Define the Population of Interest 1246.4.2 (Stage 2) Specify a Set of Participants (or Items) that are Obtainable to Investigate 1256.4.3 (Stage 3) Specify a Sampling Method for Selecting Participants from the Population 1266.4.4 (Stage 4) Determine the Sample Size 1296.4.5 (Stage 5) Write the Sampling Plan 1306.4.6 (Stage 6) Practical Sampling and Data Collection Guidance 1326.5 Summary of the Sampling Process 1326.5.1 Chapter Conclusion 1326.6 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 133Answers to Chapter 6 SAQs 1347 Data Collection Methods 1357.1 Differences Between Primary and Secondary Data 1357.2 Data Collection Methods and Tools 1357.3 Guidelines for Data Collection Processes 1367.4 Questionnaires 1377.4.1 What are Reliability and Validity? 1407.4.2 What is Reliability? 1407.4.3 Test–Retest 1417.4.4 Parallel Form 1427.4.5 Split Half 1437.4.6 What is Validity? 1437.4.7 Face Validity 1437.4.8 Content Validity 1447.4.9 Criterion Validity 1447.5 Measurement 1457.6 Interviews 1467.6.1 Unstructured Interview 1467.6.2 Semi- Structured Interview 1467.6.3 Structured Interview 1467.6.4 Focus Group Interviews 1477.6.5 Steps Involved in Running a Focus Group 1477.7 Observations 1497.7.1 Roles Taken During Observational Data Collection 1497.8 Summary of Data Collection Chapter 1507.9 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 150Answers to Chapter 7 SAQs 1518 Analyzing Qualitative Data 1528.1 Introduction to Qualitative Data Analysis 1528.2 Basic Processes of Qualitative Data Analysis 1538.3 Coding the Data 1548.3.1 The Coding Process 1548.3.2 Defining Codes 1558.4 Specific Analytic Strategies 1568.4.1 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) 1578.4.2 Grounded Theory Constant Comparative Analysis 1578.4.3 Ethnographic Analysis 1588.4.4 Narrative and Discourse Analysis 1588.5 Cognitive Processes Involved in Qualitative Data Analysis 1588.6 Summary of Analyzing Qualitative Data Chapter 1608.7 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 161Answers to Chapter 8 SAQs 1629 Analyzing Quantitative Research 1639.1 Introduction to Quantitative Data Analysis 1639.2 What the Term Statistics Means? 1639.3 What are Descriptive Statistics? 1649.3.1 Measures of Central Tendency 1659.3.2 Measures of Dispersion 1669.4 Distribution of Data 166■ Box 9.1 How to Calculate the Range IQR and the Standard Deviation for the Example of Data Presented in Activity 9.1 1679.4.1 The Normal Distribution 1679.4.2 Parametric Tests 1679.4.3 Skewness and its Relationship to Central Tendency 1699.4.4 Non- Parametric Tests 1709.5 What are Inferential Statistics? 1719.6 Types of Quantitative Data Produced 1719.6.1 Nominal Data 1729.6.2 Ordinal Data 1729.6.3 Interval Data 1729.6.4 Ratio Data 1729.7 Calculating Probability 1729.7.1 The Relationship of Probability to Samples and Populations 1739.7.2 Relationship between Population and Sample Statistics 174■ Box 9.2 Example of a Relationship Between a Sample Mean and the Whole Population 1749.8 Research Variables 1759.8.1 Using the Standard Error 1759.8.2 Confidence Intervals 1769.9 Hypothesis Testing 1769.9.1 Types of Statistical Tests that Test the Hypothesis 1779.10 How to Select the Appropriate Statistical Test 1789.10.1 Significant Difference Between Groups 1799.11 Correlations 181■ Box 9.3 Example Study that has used a One Sample t-test 180■ Box 9.4 Example Study that has used a Paired Samples t- test 181■ Box 9.5 Example Study that has used an Independent Samples t- test 1839.11.1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 184■ Box 9.6 Example Studies that use Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 1849.11.2 Chi- Square Test 185■ Box 9.7 Example Study that will use a Chi- Square Test 1869.11.3 Fisher’s Exact Test 1879.11.4 Spearman’s Correlation 1879.11.5 Pearson’s Correlation 1879.12 Summary of Analyzing Quantitative Data 187■ Box 9.8 Example of Intended Data Analysis (STEP 10) 1889.13 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 188Answers to Chapter 9 SAQs 19010 The Role and Procedures Involved in Gaining Ethical Approval 19110.1 Ethical Issues that Relate to Implementation of Research 19110.1.1 Examples of Why Ethics Committees have Evolved 19110.1.2 What does Research Ethics Mean? 19210.1.3 Moral or Ethical Consideration 19210.2 Ethical Terms 19310.3 Preventing Harm 19310.3.1 Risk 19410.3.2 Deception 19410.3.3 The Milgram (1963) Experiment 19410.3.4 Privacy 19410.3.5 Confidentiality 19510.4 What is Ethical Approval? 19610.5 Why is Ethical Approval Necessary? 19610.5.1 The Declaration of Helsinki 19610.6 Monitoring of Research Projects 19710.6.1 Codes and Policies for Research Ethics 19710.7 Obtaining Ethics Committee Approval 19710.7.1 What does the Integrated Research Application System (IRAS) do? 19810.7.2 What does the IRAS Committee do? 19810.8 General Questions Asked for on an Ethics Application? 20410.8.1 Chapter Conclusion 20510.9 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 205Answers to Chapter 10 SAQs 20611 An Empty Template for Designing a 16- STEP Research Proposal 20711.1 Recap on How to Design a Research Proposal 20711.2 An Empty 16- STEP Research Template 20711.2.1 STEP (1): Give the Research Proposal a Title 20711.2.2 STEP (2): Provide Relevant Personal and Professional Details 20811.2.3 STEP (3): Provide a Short Abstract or Summary (around 300–400 Words) 20911.2.4 STEP (4): Supply Six Keywords to Describe the Research Proposal 20911.2.5 STEP (5): Construct an Introduction that Contains a Relevant Literature Review and Rationale 21011.2.6 STEP (6): State the Objectives Aim(s) Research Question(s) Sub- Question(s) Hypotheses and Null Hypotheses of the Proposed Research Study 21111.2.7 STEP (7): Outline the Research Method 21211.2.8 STEP (8): Select Setting Participants Sampling Method Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria and Method of Recruitment 21311.2.9 STEP (9): Describe Data Collection Instruments 21311.2.10 STEP (10): Detail Intended Data Processing and Analysis 21311.2.11 STEP (11): Declare any Ethical Considerations and Outline Data Protection Procedures 21411.2.12 STEP (12): Produce a Timetable and Consider Potential Problems that may Occur 21411.2.13 STEP (13): Estimate Resources that may be Required 21511.2.14 STEP (14): Detail a Public Engagement Plan 21711.2.15 STEP (15): Append a Reference List 21711.2.16 STEP (16): Append Relevant Additional Material 21811.3 Book Conclusion 218References 219