X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

Paul van der Heide, PhD, is the Director of the Materials and Component Analysis department at imec, based in Leuven, Belgium. Previously affiliated with GlobalFoundries, Samsung, and the University of Houston, he has authored or co-authored over 200 publications and is the author of two books on surface analysis techniques.

• Foreword xii Preface To First Edition xv Preface To Second Edition xvii Acknowledgments xix List Of Constants xx List Of Abbreviations xxi List Of Symbols xxvii Pivotal Timelines xxviii SECTION I : Background Concepts & Instrumentation 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Physical Properties Of Matter & The Societal Impacts Realized 3 1.2 Surfaces Of Matter & The Technological Impacts Realized 6 1.3 Surface Science 10 1.4 XPS & PES 12 1.5 History Of XPS 15 1.6 Physical Basis Of XPS 21 1.7 Sensitivity & Specificity Of XPS 26 1.8 Summary 28 References 30 2 Atomic & Electronic Structure 34 2.1 The Atom 34 2.1.1 Atoms & Matter 35 2.1.2 Electronic Structure Of Atoms 39 2.1.2.1 Quantum Numbers 41 2.1.2.2 Stationary-State Notation 42 2.1.2.3 Stationary-State Transitions & Notation 44 2.1.2.4 Stationary-State Energies 46 2.1.2.5 Spin Orbit Splitting 48 2.1.2.6 Ionization Potentials & Electron Affinities 50 2.1.3 Bonding & The Electronic Structure In Solids 51 2.1.3.1 Metal, Semiconductor & Insulator Band Structures 52 2.1.3.2 Band Bending & Band Alignment 54 2.2 Summary 58 References 60 3 Instrumentation I 62 3.1 Components 62 3.1.1 Photon Sources 63 3.1.2 Photon Filtering & Focusing 73 3.1.3 Electron Sources 79 3.1.4 Ion Sources 80 3.1.5 Electron Extraction & Transfer 83 3.1.6 Electron Energy Analyzers 84 3.1.7 Electron Amplification & Detection 91 3.2 Summary 96 References 98 4 Instrumentation II 102 4.1 Systems 102 4.1.1 Vacuum 103 4.1.2 Energy 112 4.1.3 Imaging 119 4.1.4 Related Techniques 127 4.1.5 Automation 142 4.2 Summary 146 References 147 SECTION II : Data Acquisition & Interpretation 152 5 Data Collection & Quantification 154 5.1 Analysis Procedures 154 5.2 Photoelectron Intensities 162 5.3 Information As A Function Of Depth 175 5.4 Summary 194 References 196   6 Speciation & Band-Structure 199 6.1 Spectral Interpretation 199 6.2 Band-Structure Measurements 244 6.3 Scientific Rigor & Reporting 248 6.4 Summary 250 References 252 7 Spectral Simulations 259 7.1 Computational Methods 259 7.2 Summary 270 References 270 8 Case Studies 273 8.1 Introduction 274 8.2 Summary 300 References 301 APPENDICES 304 Appendix A Periodic Table Of The Elements 306 Appendix B Core Level & Fluorescence Notation 307 Appendix C Electron Binding Energies 308 Appendix D Elemental Work Functions 314 Appendix E Line Shapes 318 Appendix F Optical Properties 322 Appendix G Other Spectroscopies/Spectrometries 325 Appendix H Other Microscopies/Tomographies 337 Appendix I Reflection/Diffraction Techniques 347 Glossary Of Terms 350 Hardware Vendors 360 Software Suppliers 363 Index 364