Yuping Wu, PhD, is Full Professor at the School of Energy Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University in Nanjing, China. He has published more than 360 papers, won many awards such as Distinguished Youth Scientists from NSFC, China, and was selected as one of the Most Influential Minds from Highly Cited Researchers over the World in 2015. Rudolf Holze, PhD, is Full Professor of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Chemnitz University of Technology. Germany, at St. Petersburg State University, Russia, Distinguished Professor at Nanjing Tech University, China, and an ordinary member of the Saxon Academy of Sciences. He has authored nine books and more than 450 research articles.

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• Foreword xiPreface xiii1 Processes and Applications of Energy Conversion and Storage 12 Electrochemical Processes and Systems 212.1 Parasitic Reactions 302.2 Self-discharge 302.3 Device Deterioration 322.3.1 Aging 373 Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Systems 394 Kinetics of Electrochemical Energy Conversion Processes 554.1 Steps of Electrode Reactions and Overpotentials 564.2 Transport 564.3 Charge Transfer 594.4 Overpotentials 594.5 Diffusion 624.6 Further Overpotentials 635 Electrodes and Electrolytes 715.1 Recycling 846 Experimental Methods 876.1 Battery Tester 876.2 Current–Potential Measurements 886.3 Charge/Discharge Measurements 926.4 Battery Charging 1006.5 Linear Scan and Cyclic Voltammetry 1076.6 Impedance Measurements 1116.7 Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique (GITT) 1176.8 Potentiostatic Intermittent Titration Technique (PITT) 1196.9 Step Potential Electrochemical Spectroscopy (SPECS) 1206.10 Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (EQCM) 1216.11 Non-electrochemical Methods 1216.11.1 Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 1216.11.2 Gas Adsorption Measurements 1216.11.3 Microscopies 1226.11.4 Thermal Measurements 1226.11.5 Modeling 1237 Primary Systems 1277.1 Aqueous Systems 1297.1.1 Zinc–Carbon Battery 1297.1.2 Alkaline Zn//MnO2 Battery 1317.1.3 Zn//HgO Battery 1347.1.4 Zn//AgO Battery 1367.1.5 Cd//AgO Batteries 1387.1.6 Mg//MnO2 Batteries 1407.2 Nonaqueous Systems 1417.2.1 Primary Lithium Batteries 1417.2.2 Li//MnO2 1447.2.3 Li//Bi2O3 1457.2.4 Li//CuO 1467.2.5 Li//V2O5, Li//Ag2V4O11, and Li//CSVO 1477.2.6 Li//CuS 1487.2.7 Li//FeS2 1497.2.8 Li//CFx Primary Battery 1507.2.9 Li//I2 1517.2.10 Li//SO2 1517.2.11 Li//SOCl2 1537.2.12 Li//SO2Cl2 1567.2.13 Li//Oxyhalide Primary Battery 1567.3 Metal–Air Systems 1577.3.1 Aqueous Metal–Air Primary Batteries 1577.3.2 Nonaqueous Metal–Air Batteries 1687.4 Reserve Batteries 1707.4.1 Seawater-activated Batteries 1717.4.2 High Power Activated Batteries 1738 Secondary Systems 1758.1 Aqueous Systems 1768.1.1 Lead–Acid 1768.1.2 Lead Grid 1818.1.3 Ni-based Secondary Batteries 1898.1.4 Aqueous Rechargeable Lithium Batteries 2028.1.5 Aqueous Rechargeable Sodium Batteries 2068.2 Nonaqueous Systems 2088.2.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries 2088.2.2 Rechargeable Li//S Batteries 2308.2.3 Rechargeable Na//S Batteries 2338.2.4 Rechargeable Li//Se Batteries 2348.2.5 Rechargeable Mg Batteries 2358.3 Gel Polymer Electrolyte-based Secondary Batteries 2358.3.1 Gel Lithium-Ion Batteries 2368.3.2 Gel-Type Electrolytes for Sodium Batteries 2388.4 Solid Electrolyte-based Secondary Batteries 2388.4.1 Solid Lithium-Ion Batteries 2398.4.2 Rechargeable Solid Lithium Batteries 2408.5 Rechargeable Metal–Air Batteries 2408.5.1 Rechargeable Li//Air Batteries 2428.5.2 Rechargeable Na//Air Batteries 2438.5.3 Rechargeable Zn//Air Batteries 2458.6 High-Temperature Systems 2468.6.1 Sodium–Sulfur Battery 2478.6.2 Sodium–Nickel Chloride Battery 2508.6.3 All Liquid Metal Accumalator 2549 Fuel Cells 2579.1 The Oxygen Electrode 2619.2 The Hydrogen Electrode 2679.3 Common Features of Fuel Cells 2689.4 Classification of Fuel Cells 2729.4.1 Ambient Temperature Fuel Cells 2729.4.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells 2739.4.3 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) 2749.4.4 Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells 2819.4.5 Bioelectrochemical Fuel Cells 2839.4.6 Intermediate Temperature Fuel Cells 2849.4.7 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) 2849.4.8 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) 2859.4.9 High Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) 2869.5 Applications of Fuel Cells 2889.6 Fuel Cells in Energy Storage Systems 28910 Flow Batteries 29310.1 The Iron/Chromium System 29810.2 The Iron/Vanadium System 29910.3 The Iron/Cadmium System 29910.4 The Bromine/Polysulfide System 30010.5 The All-Vanadium System 30010.6 The Vanadium/Bromine System 30210.7 Actinide RFBs 30210.8 All-Organic RFBs 30310.9 Nonaqueous RFBs 30310.10 Hybrid Systems 30310.11 The Zinc/Cerium System 30410.12 The Zinc/Bromine System 30410.13 The Zinc/Organic System 30510.14 The Cadmium/Organic System 30510.15 The Lead/Lead Dioxide System 30610.16 The Cadmium/Lead Dioxide System 30710.17 The All-Copper System 30710.18 The Zinc/Nickel System 30710.19 The Lithium/LiFePO4 System 30810.20 Vanadium Solid-Salt Battery 30810.21 Vanadium-Dioxygen System 30810.22 Electrochemical Flow Capacitor 31010.23 Current State and Perspectives 31011 Supercapacitors 31311.1 Classification of Supercapacitors 31411.2 Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors 31611.2.1 Electrolytes for EDLCs 31711.2.2 Electrode Materials for EDLCs 31811.2.3 Electrochemical Performance of EDLCs 32511.3 Pseudocapacitors 32611.3.1 RuO2 32711.3.2 MnO2 33011.3.3 Intrinsically Conducting Polymers 33511.3.4 Redox Couples 34311.3.5 Electrochemical Performance of Pseudocapacitors 34611.4 Hybrid Capacitors 35111.4.1 Negative Electrode Materials 35111.4.2 Positive Electrode Materials 35911.4.3 Electrochemical Performance of Hybrid Capacitors 37011.5 Testing of Supercapacitors 37611.6 Commercially Available Supercapacitors 37711.7 Application of Supercapacitors 37811.7.1 Uninterruptible Power Sources 37911.7.2 Transportation 37911.7.3 Smart Grids 38011.7.4 Military Equipment 38011.7.5 Other Civilian Applications 381Appendix 383Acronyms, Terms, and Definitions 387Further Reading 401Index 407

Yuping Wu, PhD, is Full Professor at the School of Energy Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University in Nanjing, China. He has published more than 360 papers, won many awards such as Distinguished Youth Scientists from NSFC, China, and was selected as one of the Most Influential Minds from Highly Cited Researchers over the World in 2015. Rudolf Holze, PhD, is Full Professor of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Chemnitz University of Technology. Germany, at St. Petersburg State University, Russia, Distinguished Professor at Nanjing Tech University, China, and an ordinary member of the Saxon Academy of Sciences. He has authored nine books and more than 450 research articles.

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• Foreword xiPreface xiii1 Processes and Applications of Energy Conversion and Storage 12 Electrochemical Processes and Systems 212.1 Parasitic Reactions 302.2 Self-discharge 302.3 Device Deterioration 322.3.1 Aging 373 Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Systems 394 Kinetics of Electrochemical Energy Conversion Processes 554.1 Steps of Electrode Reactions and Overpotentials 564.2 Transport 564.3 Charge Transfer 594.4 Overpotentials 594.5 Diffusion 624.6 Further Overpotentials 635 Electrodes and Electrolytes 715.1 Recycling 846 Experimental Methods 876.1 Battery Tester 876.2 Current–Potential Measurements 886.3 Charge/Discharge Measurements 926.4 Battery Charging 1006.5 Linear Scan and Cyclic Voltammetry 1076.6 Impedance Measurements 1116.7 Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique (GITT) 1176.8 Potentiostatic Intermittent Titration Technique (PITT) 1196.9 Step Potential Electrochemical Spectroscopy (SPECS) 1206.10 Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (EQCM) 1216.11 Non-electrochemical Methods 1216.11.1 Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 1216.11.2 Gas Adsorption Measurements 1216.11.3 Microscopies 1226.11.4 Thermal Measurements 1226.11.5 Modeling 1237 Primary Systems 1277.1 Aqueous Systems 1297.1.1 Zinc–Carbon Battery 1297.1.2 Alkaline Zn//MnO2 Battery 1317.1.3 Zn//HgO Battery 1347.1.4 Zn//AgO Battery 1367.1.5 Cd//AgO Batteries 1387.1.6 Mg//MnO2 Batteries 1407.2 Nonaqueous Systems 1417.2.1 Primary Lithium Batteries 1417.2.2 Li//MnO2 1447.2.3 Li//Bi2O3 1457.2.4 Li//CuO 1467.2.5 Li//V2O5, Li//Ag2V4O11, and Li//CSVO 1477.2.6 Li//CuS 1487.2.7 Li//FeS2 1497.2.8 Li//CFx Primary Battery 1507.2.9 Li//I2 1517.2.10 Li//SO2 1517.2.11 Li//SOCl2 1537.2.12 Li//SO2Cl2 1567.2.13 Li//Oxyhalide Primary Battery 1567.3 Metal–Air Systems 1577.3.1 Aqueous Metal–Air Primary Batteries 1577.3.2 Nonaqueous Metal–Air Batteries 1687.4 Reserve Batteries 1707.4.1 Seawater-activated Batteries 1717.4.2 High Power Activated Batteries 1738 Secondary Systems 1758.1 Aqueous Systems 1768.1.1 Lead–Acid 1768.1.2 Lead Grid 1818.1.3 Ni-based Secondary Batteries 1898.1.4 Aqueous Rechargeable Lithium Batteries 2028.1.5 Aqueous Rechargeable Sodium Batteries 2068.2 Nonaqueous Systems 2088.2.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries 2088.2.2 Rechargeable Li//S Batteries 2308.2.3 Rechargeable Na//S Batteries 2338.2.4 Rechargeable Li//Se Batteries 2348.2.5 Rechargeable Mg Batteries 2358.3 Gel Polymer Electrolyte-based Secondary Batteries 2358.3.1 Gel Lithium-Ion Batteries 2368.3.2 Gel-Type Electrolytes for Sodium Batteries 2388.4 Solid Electrolyte-based Secondary Batteries 2388.4.1 Solid Lithium-Ion Batteries 2398.4.2 Rechargeable Solid Lithium Batteries 2408.5 Rechargeable Metal–Air Batteries 2408.5.1 Rechargeable Li//Air Batteries 2428.5.2 Rechargeable Na//Air Batteries 2438.5.3 Rechargeable Zn//Air Batteries 2458.6 High-Temperature Systems 2468.6.1 Sodium–Sulfur Battery 2478.6.2 Sodium–Nickel Chloride Battery 2508.6.3 All Liquid Metal Accumalator 2549 Fuel Cells 2579.1 The Oxygen Electrode 2619.2 The Hydrogen Electrode 2679.3 Common Features of Fuel Cells 2689.4 Classification of Fuel Cells 2729.4.1 Ambient Temperature Fuel Cells 2729.4.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells 2739.4.3 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) 2749.4.4 Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells 2819.4.5 Bioelectrochemical Fuel Cells 2839.4.6 Intermediate Temperature Fuel Cells 2849.4.7 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) 2849.4.8 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) 2859.4.9 High Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) 2869.5 Applications of Fuel Cells 2889.6 Fuel Cells in Energy Storage Systems 28910 Flow Batteries 29310.1 The Iron/Chromium System 29810.2 The Iron/Vanadium System 29910.3 The Iron/Cadmium System 29910.4 The Bromine/Polysulfide System 30010.5 The All-Vanadium System 30010.6 The Vanadium/Bromine System 30210.7 Actinide RFBs 30210.8 All-Organic RFBs 30310.9 Nonaqueous RFBs 30310.10 Hybrid Systems 30310.11 The Zinc/Cerium System 30410.12 The Zinc/Bromine System 30410.13 The Zinc/Organic System 30510.14 The Cadmium/Organic System 30510.15 The Lead/Lead Dioxide System 30610.16 The Cadmium/Lead Dioxide System 30710.17 The All-Copper System 30710.18 The Zinc/Nickel System 30710.19 The Lithium/LiFePO4 System 30810.20 Vanadium Solid-Salt Battery 30810.21 Vanadium-Dioxygen System 30810.22 Electrochemical Flow Capacitor 31010.23 Current State and Perspectives 31011 Supercapacitors 31311.1 Classification of Supercapacitors 31411.2 Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors 31611.2.1 Electrolytes for EDLCs 31711.2.2 Electrode Materials for EDLCs 31811.2.3 Electrochemical Performance of EDLCs 32511.3 Pseudocapacitors 32611.3.1 RuO2 32711.3.2 MnO2 33011.3.3 Intrinsically Conducting Polymers 33511.3.4 Redox Couples 34311.3.5 Electrochemical Performance of Pseudocapacitors 34611.4 Hybrid Capacitors 35111.4.1 Negative Electrode Materials 35111.4.2 Positive Electrode Materials 35911.4.3 Electrochemical Performance of Hybrid Capacitors 37011.5 Testing of Supercapacitors 37611.6 Commercially Available Supercapacitors 37711.7 Application of Supercapacitors 37811.7.1 Uninterruptible Power Sources 37911.7.2 Transportation 37911.7.3 Smart Grids 38011.7.4 Military Equipment 38011.7.5 Other Civilian Applications 381Appendix 383Acronyms, Terms, and Definitions 387Further Reading 401Index 407

Yuping Wu, PhD, is Full Professor at the School of Energy Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University in Nanjing, China. He has published more than 360 papers, won many awards such as Distinguished Youth Scientists from NSFC, China, and was selected as one of the Most Influential Minds from Highly Cited Researchers over the World in 2015. Rudolf Holze, PhD, is Full Professor of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Chemnitz University of Technology. Germany, at St. Petersburg State University, Russia, Distinguished Professor at Nanjing Tech University, China, and an ordinary member of the Saxon Academy of Sciences. He has authored nine books and more than 450 research articles.

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• Foreword xiPreface xiii1 Processes and Applications of Energy Conversion and Storage 12 Electrochemical Processes and Systems 212.1 Parasitic Reactions 302.2 Self-discharge 302.3 Device Deterioration 322.3.1 Aging 373 Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Systems 394 Kinetics of Electrochemical Energy Conversion Processes 554.1 Steps of Electrode Reactions and Overpotentials 564.2 Transport 564.3 Charge Transfer 594.4 Overpotentials 594.5 Diffusion 624.6 Further Overpotentials 635 Electrodes and Electrolytes 715.1 Recycling 846 Experimental Methods 876.1 Battery Tester 876.2 Current–Potential Measurements 886.3 Charge/Discharge Measurements 926.4 Battery Charging 1006.5 Linear Scan and Cyclic Voltammetry 1076.6 Impedance Measurements 1116.7 Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique (GITT) 1176.8 Potentiostatic Intermittent Titration Technique (PITT) 1196.9 Step Potential Electrochemical Spectroscopy (SPECS) 1206.10 Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (EQCM) 1216.11 Non-electrochemical Methods 1216.11.1 Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 1216.11.2 Gas Adsorption Measurements 1216.11.3 Microscopies 1226.11.4 Thermal Measurements 1226.11.5 Modeling 1237 Primary Systems 1277.1 Aqueous Systems 1297.1.1 Zinc–Carbon Battery 1297.1.2 Alkaline Zn//MnO2 Battery 1317.1.3 Zn//HgO Battery 1347.1.4 Zn//AgO Battery 1367.1.5 Cd//AgO Batteries 1387.1.6 Mg//MnO2 Batteries 1407.2 Nonaqueous Systems 1417.2.1 Primary Lithium Batteries 1417.2.2 Li//MnO2 1447.2.3 Li//Bi2O3 1457.2.4 Li//CuO 1467.2.5 Li//V2O5, Li//Ag2V4O11, and Li//CSVO 1477.2.6 Li//CuS 1487.2.7 Li//FeS2 1497.2.8 Li//CFx Primary Battery 1507.2.9 Li//I2 1517.2.10 Li//SO2 1517.2.11 Li//SOCl2 1537.2.12 Li//SO2Cl2 1567.2.13 Li//Oxyhalide Primary Battery 1567.3 Metal–Air Systems 1577.3.1 Aqueous Metal–Air Primary Batteries 1577.3.2 Nonaqueous Metal–Air Batteries 1687.4 Reserve Batteries 1707.4.1 Seawater-activated Batteries 1717.4.2 High Power Activated Batteries 1738 Secondary Systems 1758.1 Aqueous Systems 1768.1.1 Lead–Acid 1768.1.2 Lead Grid 1818.1.3 Ni-based Secondary Batteries 1898.1.4 Aqueous Rechargeable Lithium Batteries 2028.1.5 Aqueous Rechargeable Sodium Batteries 2068.2 Nonaqueous Systems 2088.2.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries 2088.2.2 Rechargeable Li//S Batteries 2308.2.3 Rechargeable Na//S Batteries 2338.2.4 Rechargeable Li//Se Batteries 2348.2.5 Rechargeable Mg Batteries 2358.3 Gel Polymer Electrolyte-based Secondary Batteries 2358.3.1 Gel Lithium-Ion Batteries 2368.3.2 Gel-Type Electrolytes for Sodium Batteries 2388.4 Solid Electrolyte-based Secondary Batteries 2388.4.1 Solid Lithium-Ion Batteries 2398.4.2 Rechargeable Solid Lithium Batteries 2408.5 Rechargeable Metal–Air Batteries 2408.5.1 Rechargeable Li//Air Batteries 2428.5.2 Rechargeable Na//Air Batteries 2438.5.3 Rechargeable Zn//Air Batteries 2458.6 High-Temperature Systems 2468.6.1 Sodium–Sulfur Battery 2478.6.2 Sodium–Nickel Chloride Battery 2508.6.3 All Liquid Metal Accumalator 2549 Fuel Cells 2579.1 The Oxygen Electrode 2619.2 The Hydrogen Electrode 2679.3 Common Features of Fuel Cells 2689.4 Classification of Fuel Cells 2729.4.1 Ambient Temperature Fuel Cells 2729.4.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells 2739.4.3 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) 2749.4.4 Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells 2819.4.5 Bioelectrochemical Fuel Cells 2839.4.6 Intermediate Temperature Fuel Cells 2849.4.7 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) 2849.4.8 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) 2859.4.9 High Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) 2869.5 Applications of Fuel Cells 2889.6 Fuel Cells in Energy Storage Systems 28910 Flow Batteries 29310.1 The Iron/Chromium System 29810.2 The Iron/Vanadium System 29910.3 The Iron/Cadmium System 29910.4 The Bromine/Polysulfide System 30010.5 The All-Vanadium System 30010.6 The Vanadium/Bromine System 30210.7 Actinide RFBs 30210.8 All-Organic RFBs 30310.9 Nonaqueous RFBs 30310.10 Hybrid Systems 30310.11 The Zinc/Cerium System 30410.12 The Zinc/Bromine System 30410.13 The Zinc/Organic System 30510.14 The Cadmium/Organic System 30510.15 The Lead/Lead Dioxide System 30610.16 The Cadmium/Lead Dioxide System 30710.17 The All-Copper System 30710.18 The Zinc/Nickel System 30710.19 The Lithium/LiFePO4 System 30810.20 Vanadium Solid-Salt Battery 30810.21 Vanadium-Dioxygen System 30810.22 Electrochemical Flow Capacitor 31010.23 Current State and Perspectives 31011 Supercapacitors 31311.1 Classification of Supercapacitors 31411.2 Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors 31611.2.1 Electrolytes for EDLCs 31711.2.2 Electrode Materials for EDLCs 31811.2.3 Electrochemical Performance of EDLCs 32511.3 Pseudocapacitors 32611.3.1 RuO2 32711.3.2 MnO2 33011.3.3 Intrinsically Conducting Polymers 33511.3.4 Redox Couples 34311.3.5 Electrochemical Performance of Pseudocapacitors 34611.4 Hybrid Capacitors 35111.4.1 Negative Electrode Materials 35111.4.2 Positive Electrode Materials 35911.4.3 Electrochemical Performance of Hybrid Capacitors 37011.5 Testing of Supercapacitors 37611.6 Commercially Available Supercapacitors 37711.7 Application of Supercapacitors 37811.7.1 Uninterruptible Power Sources 37911.7.2 Transportation 37911.7.3 Smart Grids 38011.7.4 Military Equipment 38011.7.5 Other Civilian Applications 381Appendix 383Acronyms, Terms, and Definitions 387Further Reading 401Index 407