Lecture Notes in Physics - Böcker

This book addresses the confinement problem, which concerns the behavior of non-abelian gauge theories, and the force which is mediated by gauge fields, at large distances.

Fritz Rohrlich, Emeritus Professor of Physics, Syracuse University This reexamination of the classical model of the electron, introduced by H. A. Lorentz more than 100 years ago, serves as both a review of the subject and as a context for presenting new material. The new material includes the determination and elimination of the noncausal behavior in the original equation of motion, and the derivation of the binding forces and total stress-momentum-energy tensor for a charged insulator moving with arbitrary velocity. The final equations of motion are given in a number of different formats to allow them to be readily used by physicists, engineers, and mathematicians.

The idea of synthesizing quantum electrodynamics (QED) and the kinetic theory of plasmas ?rst occurred to me in the early 1970s [1, 2]. The project to do so has been carried out bit by bit over the subsequent years. The name “quantum plasmadynamics” (QPD) is my own jargon [3] for the synthesized theory. Both QED and the kinetic theory of plasmas areconcerned with the int- action between charged particles and the electromagnetic ?eld, but they are radically di?erent in the way the interaction is described. The kinetic theory of plasmas is a collective-medium theory: a plasma is not a collection of - dependent particles in a given electromagnetic ?eld, but a medium in which the particles collectively modify the ?eld, and the ?eld modi?es the par- cles. The charge and current densities associated with the particles are part of a self-consistent ?eld. Conventionally, the kinetic theory of plasmas is a classical theory: the motions of particles are treated using classical dynamics.

This book is based on material taught in general and special theoretical physics courses given by I.B. Khriplovich at the Physics Department of Novosibirsk University, Russia. The book contains the analysis of concrete problems in classical mechanics, classical electrodynamics, quantum mechanics, and relativistic quantum mechanics. To the best of Khriplovich's knowledge, many of the problems and solutions included in this book have never been discussed in print before.

These notes are a transcript of lectures delivered by Oyvind Gron during the spring of 1997 at the University of Oslo. The present version of this document is an extended and corrected version of a set of Lecture Notes which were typesetted by S. Bard, Andreas O. Jaunsen, A Frode Hansen and Ragnvald J. Irgens using LT X2 . Svend E. Hjelmeland has made E many useful suggestions which have improved the text. I would also like to thank Jon Magne Leinaas and Sigbjorn Hervik for contributing with problems, and Gorm Krogh Johnsen for help with nishing the manuscript. I also want to thank prof. Finn Ravndal for inspiring lectures on general relativity. While we hope that these typeset notes are of bene t particularly to students of general relativity and look forward to their comments, we welcome all interested readers and accept all feedback with thanks. All comment may be sent to the author by e-mail.

The reviews presented in this volume cover a huge range of cluster of galaxies topics. Readers will find the book essential reading on subjects such as the physics of the ICM gas, the internal cluster dynamics, and the detection of clusters using different observational techniques. The expert chapter authors also cover the huge advances being made in analytical or numerical modeling of clusters, weak and strong lensing effects, and the large scale structure as traced by clusters.

Published under the auspices of the Royal Astronomical Society, this volume contains a set of extensive school tested lectures, with the aim to give a coherent and thorough background knowledge of the subject and to introduce the latest developments in N-body computational astrophysics.The topics cover a wide range from the classical few-body problem with discussions of resonance, chaos and stability to realistic modelling of star clusters as well as descriptions of codes, algorithms and special hardware for N-body simulations.This collection of topics, related to the gravitational N-body problem, will prove useful to both students and researchers in years to come.1)     Published under theauspices of the Royal Astronomical Society.

The problem of counting the number of self-avoiding polygons on a square grid, - therbytheirperimeterortheirenclosedarea,is aproblemthatis soeasytostate that, at ?rst sight, it seems surprising that it hasn’t been solved. It is however perhaps the simplest member of a large class of such problems that have resisted all attempts at their exact solution. These are all problems that are easy to state and look as if they should be solvable. They include percolation, in its various forms, the Ising model of ferromagnetism, polyomino enumeration, Potts models and many others. These models are of intrinsic interest to mathematicians and mathematical physicists, but can also be applied to many other areas, including economics, the social sciences, the biological sciences and even to traf?c models. It is the widespread applicab- ity of these models to interesting phenomena that makes them so deserving of our attention. Here however we restrict our attention to the mathematical aspects. Here we are concerned with collecting together most of what is known about polygons, and the closely related problems of polyominoes. We describe what is known, taking care to distinguish between what has been proved, and what is c- tainlytrue,but has notbeenproved. Theearlierchaptersfocusonwhatis knownand on why the problems have not been solved, culminating in a proof of unsolvability, in a certain sense. The next chapters describe a range of numerical and theoretical methods and tools for extracting as much information about the problem as possible, in some cases permittingexactconjecturesto be made.

The idea of synthesizing quantum electrodynamics (QED) and the kinetic theory of plasmas ?rst occurred to me in the early 1970s [1, 2]. The project to do so has been carried out bit by bit over the subsequent years. The name “quantum plasmadynamics” (QPD) is my own jargon [3] for the synthesized theory. Both QED and the kinetic theory of plasmas areconcerned with the int- action between charged particles and the electromagnetic ?eld, but they are radically di?erent in the way the interaction is described. The kinetic theory of plasmas is a collective-medium theory: a plasma is not a collection of - dependent particles in a given electromagnetic ?eld, but a medium in which the particles collectively modify the ?eld, and the ?eld modi?es the par- cles. The charge and current densities associated with the particles are part of a self-consistent ?eld. Conventionally, the kinetic theory of plasmas is a classical theory: the motions of particles are treated using classical dynamics.

Whydowelookatsomethingsandthinktheyarebeautifulwhileotherthingsdo notappearestheticallypleasingtous?Thisisaquestionthathasalwaysinterested mankind. Oneanswerisgivenbythefollowingquotationfromanearlypresidentof theCollegeofNewJersey(nowPrincetonUniversity): "Beautyisfoundinimmaterialthingslikeproportionoruniformity...calledbyvariousnamesofregularity,order,uniformity,symmetry, 1 proportion,harmony,etc. "...JonathanEdwards Symmetrynotonlyprovidesthenaturalharmonythatmakessomethingappear beautifultous,butalsoisofgreatvaluetosciencebecauseitdictatesthephysical traitsofmanyobjects. Natureitselfseemstolovebeautysinceatomstendtoself? assemble into shapes with speci?c symmetry and crystals grow in geometric lattices. Inmanycases,ifweknowthesymmetryofsomethingwecanpredict someofitsimportantpropertieswithouthavingtoresorttoexperimentationor complicatedcalculations. One area where the concept of symmetry plays an important role is that of crystalline solids. Crystals, by their very nature, exhibit speci?c symmetries. Crystallinematerialshavemanyimportantapplicationsindevicesbasedontheir electronic,optical,thermal,magnetic,andmechanicalproperties.Solidstatep- sicistsandchemists,aswellasmaterialscientistsandengineers,havedeveloped rigorousquantumtheoreticalmodelstodescribethesepropertiesandsophisticated measurementtechniquestoverifythesemodels. Manytimes,however,inscreeningmaterialsforanewapplicationitisuseful to be able to quickly and easily determine if a speci?c material will have the appropriatepropertieswithoutmakingdetailedcalculationsorexperiments. This canbedonebyanalyzingthesymmetrypropertiesofthematerial. Themathema- calformalismthathasbeendevelopedtoaccomplishthisiscalledgrouptheory. Thesymmetrypropertiesofacrystalcanbedescribedbyagroupofmathematical 1 J. Edwards,WorksofJonathanEdwards(BannerofTruthTrust,Edinburgh,1979) v vi Preface operations. Thenusingsimplegrouptheoryprocedures,thephysicalpropertiesof thecrystalcanbedetermined. Duringthe45yearsIhavebeeninvolvedinteachingandresearchinvarious areasofsolidstatephysics,Ihavemadeextensiveuseoftheconceptsofgroup theory. YetIhavebeensurprisedathowlittleemphasisthistopicreceivesinany formaleducationalcurriculum.Generally,astudentstudyingsolidstatephysicsor chemistrywillbeexposedtocrystalstructuresearlyinthesemesterandthenhave nofurtherexposuretocrystalsymmetryuntilsomespecialtopicsuchasnonlinear opticsisdiscussed. Thisbookfocusesonthesymmetryofcrystalsandthedescr- tionofthissymmetrythroughtheuseofgrouptheory. Althoughspeci?cexamples are provided of using this formalism to determine both the microscopic and macroscopicpropertiesofmaterials,theemphasisisonthecomprehensive,per- sivenatureofsymmetryinallareasofsolidstatescience. Theintentofthebookistobeareferencesourceforthosedoingresearchor teachinginsolidstatescienceandengineering,oratextforaspecialtycoursein grouptheoryappliedtothepropertiesofcrystals. Tucson,AZ RichardC. Powell June2010 Contents 1 SymmetryinSolids...1 1. 1 Symmetry...1 1. 2 CrystalStructures...4 1. 3 SymmetryinReciprocalSpace...15 1. 4 Problems...24 References...24 2 GroupTheory...25 2. 1 BasicConceptsofGroupTheory...27 2. 2 CharacterTables...31 2. 3 GroupTheoryExamples...40 2. 3. 1 C PointGroup...40 3v 2. 3. 2 O PointGroup...45 h 2. 4 GroupTheoryinQuantumMechanics...47 2. 5 Problems...52 References...53 3 TensorPropertiesofCrystals...55 3. 1 First-RankMatterTensors...57 3. 2 Second-RankMatterTensors...62 3. 3 Third-RankMatterTensors...68 3. 4 Fourth-RankMatterTensors...73 3. 5 Problems...77 References...77 4 SymmetryPropertiesofPointDefectsinSolids...79 4. 1 EnergyLevelsofFreeIons...79 4. 2 CrystalFieldSymmetry...85 4. 3 EnergyLevelsofIonsinCrystals...87 vii viii Contents 4. 4 Example:d?Electrons...95 4. 5 Example:f-Electrons...100 4. 6 Problems...104 References...104 5 SymmetryandtheOpticalPropertiesofCrystals ...

Consequences of quantum gravity on grander scales are expected to be enormous: only such a theory can show how black holes really behave and where our universe came from. Applications of loop quantum gravity to cosmology have especially by now shed much light on cosmic evolution of a universe in a fundamental, microscopic description. Modern techniques are explained in this book which demonstrate how the universe could have come from a non-singular phase before the big bang, how equations for the evolution of structure can be derived, but also what fundamental limitations remain to our knowledge of the universe before the big bang.The following topics will be covered in this book:Hamiltonian cosmology: a general basic treatment of isotropy, perturbations and their role for observations; useful in general cosmology.Effective equations: an efficient way to evaluate equations of quantum gravity, which is also useful in other areas of physics where quantum theory is involved.Loop quantization: a new formalism for the atomic picture of space-time; usually presented at a sophisticated mathematical level, but evaluated here from an intuitive physical side.The book will start with physical motivations, rather than mathematical developments which is more common in other expositions of this field. All the required mathematical methods will be presented, but will not distract the reader from seeing the underlying physics. Simple but representative models will be presented first to show the basic features, which are then used to work upwards to a general description of quantum gravity and its applications in cosmology. This will make the book accessible to a more general physics readership.

Consequences of quantum gravity on grander scales are expected to be enormous: only such a theory can show how black holes really behave and where our universe came from. Applications of loop quantum gravity to cosmology have especially by now shed much light on cosmic evolution of a universe in a fundamental, microscopic description. Modern techniques are explained in this book which demonstrate how the universe could have come from a non-singular phase before the big bang, how equations for the evolution of structure can be derived, but also what fundamental limitations remain to our knowledge of the universe before the big bang.The following topics will be covered in this book:Hamiltonian cosmology: a general basic treatment of isotropy, perturbations and their role for observations; useful in general cosmology.Effective equations: an efficient way to evaluate equations of quantum gravity, which is also useful in other areas of physics where quantum theory is involved.Loop quantization: a new formalism for the atomic picture of space-time; usually presented at a sophisticated mathematical level, but evaluated here from an intuitive physical side.The book will start with physical motivations, rather than mathematical developments which is more common in other expositions of this field. All the required mathematical methods will be presented, but will not distract the reader from seeing the underlying physics. Simple but representative models will be presented first to show the basic features, which are then used to work upwards to a general description of quantum gravity and its applications in cosmology. This will make the book accessible to a more general physics readership.

Quantum Plasmadynamics is a synthesis of the kinetic theory of plasmas and quantum electrodynamics (QED). In this volume, the approach applied to unmagnetized plasmas in volume 1 is generalized to magnetized plasmas. First, a covariant version of nonquantum kinetic theory is formulated for single-particle (emission and scattering)  processes and the collective-medium response. The relativistic quantum treatment is based on solutions of Dirac's equation for an electron in a magnetostatic field, and single-particle processes are treated using a magnetized version of QED. The response of an electron gas is derived by generalizing the derivation of the response of the magnetized vacuum.

“Transport Processes in Space Physics and Astrophysics”  is aimed at graduate level students to provide the necessary mathematical and physics background to understand the transport of gases, charged particle gases, energetic charged particles, turbulence, and radiation in  an astrophysical and space physics context. Subjects emphasized in the work include collisional and collisionless processes in gases (neutral or plasma), analogous processes in turbulence fields and radiation fields, and allows for a simplified treatment of the statistical description of the system. A systematic study that addresses the common tools at a graduate level allows students to progress to a point where they can begin their research in a variety of fields within space physics and astrophysics. This book is for graduate students who expect to complete their research in an area of plasma space physics or plasma astrophysics. By providing a broad synthesis in several areas of transport theory and modeling, the work also benefits researchers in related fields by providing an overview that currently does not exist. For numerous interesting and challenging space physics and astrophysics problems, there is a need to describe the “long-term” behavior of systems governed by macroscopic laws and microscopic randomness. A random event has an outcome that is uncertain and unpredictable, yet the collective behavior of a system can be governed by well defined mathematical and physical principles. Examples of physical problems include the behavior of gases in the presence of microscopic inter-particle collisions, the evolution of a gas of charged protons and electrons (a plasma), the collective propagation of solar energetic particles or cosmic rays in a magnetically turbulent medium, the collective behavior of dust in an accretion disk subject to coagulation and destruction, the evolution of low-frequency magnetic field turbulence in the inhomogeneous solar wind, or the transport of photosin a partially ionized interstellar medium. This book provides graduate students with a unified introduction to the physics of collective phenomena or transport processes for gases (charged and uncharged), fields, and photons in a space physics or astrophysics context.

Lasers can readily remove very thin layers from small areasof a material and can thus be used both to control thestructure of the surface and to determine its composition.Laser ablation thus has a wide variety of applications -from re-shaping the cornea of the eye to correct vision andmicro-machining electronic devices, to detection of minutecontaminants on catalysts. This book is the proceedings ofone ofthe first workshops held on this topic.

These lecture notes are intended for starting PhD students in theoretical physics who have a working knowledge of General Relativity. The four topics covered are:Surface charges as conserved quantities in theories of gravity;Classical and holographic features of three-dimensional Einstein gravity;Asymptotically flat spacetimes in four dimensions: BMS group and memory effects;The Kerr black hole: properties at extremality and quasi-normal mode ringing.Each topic starts with historical foundations and points to a few modern research directions.

This book introduces a quantum-mechanical description of the nuclear fission process from an initial compound state to scission. Issues like the relevant degrees of freedom throughout the process, the way of coupling collective and intrinsic degrees during the fission process, and how a nucleus divides into two separate daughters in a quantum-mechanical description where its wave function can be non-local, are currently being investigated through a variety of theoretical, computational, and experimental techniques.The term “microscopic” in this context refers to an approach that starts from protons, neutrons, and an effective (i.e., in-medium) interaction between them. The form of this interaction is inspired by more fundamental theories of nuclear matter, but still contains parameters that have to be adjusted to data. Thus, this microscopic approach is far from complete, but sufficient progress has been made to warrant taking stock of what has been accomplished so far.Theaim is to provide, in a pedagogical and comprehensive manner, one specific approach to the fission problem, originally developed at the CEA Bruyères-le-Châtel Laboratory in France.Intended as a reference for advanced graduate students and researchers in fission theory as well as for practitioners in the field, it includes illustrative examples throughout the text to make it easier for the reader to understand, implement, and verify the formalism presented.

This book introduces two-dimensional supersymmetric field theories with emphasis on both linear and non-linear sigma models. Complex differential geometry, in connection with supersymmetry, has played a key role in most developments of the last thirty years in quantum field theory and string theory. Both structures introduce a great deal of rigidity compared to the more general categories of non-supersymmetric theories and real differential geometry, allowing for many general conceptual results and detailed quantitative predictions. Two-dimensional (0,2) supersymmetric quantum field theories provide a natural arena for the fruitful interplay between geometry and quantum field theory. These theories play an important role in string theory and provide generalizations, still to be explored fully, of rich structures such as mirror symmetry. They also have applications to non-perturbative four-dimensional physics, for instance as descriptions of surface defects or low energy dynamics of solitonic strings in four-dimensional supersymmetric theories. The purpose of these lecture notes is to acquaint the reader with these fascinating theories, assuming a background in conformal theory, quantum field theory and differential geometry at the beginning graduate level. In order to investigate the profound relations between structures from complex geometry and field theory the text begins with a thorough examination of the basic structures of (0,2) quantum field theory and conformal field theory. Next, a simple class of Lagrangian theories, the (0,2) Landau-Ginzburg models, are discussed, together with the resulting renormalization group flows, dynamics, and symmetries. After a thorough introduction and examination of (0,2) non-linear sigma models, the text introduces linear sigma models that, in particular, provide a unified treatment of non-linear sigma models and Landau-Ginzburg theories. Many exercises, along with discussions of relevant mathematical notions and important open problems in the field, are included in the text.

Most of the matter in our universe is in a gaseous or plasma state. Yet, most textbooks on quantum statistics focus on examples from and applications in condensed matter systems, due to the prevalence of solids and liquids in our day-to-day lives. In an attempt to remedy that oversight, this book consciously focuses on teaching the subject matter in the context of (dilute) gases and plasmas, while aiming primarily at graduate students and young researchers in the field of quantum gases and plasmas for some of the more advanced topics. The majority of the material is based on a two-semester course held jointly by the authors over many years, and has benefited from extensive feedback provided by countless students and co-workers. The book also includes many historical remarks on the roots of quantum statistics: firstly because students appreciate and are strongly motivated by looking back at the history of a given field of research, and secondly because the spirit permeating this book has been deeply influenced by meetings and discussions with several pioneers of quantum statistics over the past few decades.

Like planets in our solar system, exoplanets form, evolve, and interact with their host stars in many ways. As exoplanets acquire material and grow to the final size, their atmospheres are subjected to intense UV and X-radiation and high-energy particle bombardment from the young host star. Whether a planet can retain its atmosphere and the conditions for significant mass loss both depend upon the strength of the host star's high-energy radiation and wind, the distance of the exoplanet from its host star, the gravitational potential of the exoplanet, and the initial  chemical composition of the exoplanet atmosphere. This introductory overview describes the physical processes responsible for the emission of radiation and acceleration of winds of host stars that together control the environment of an exoplanet, focusing on topics that are critically important for understanding exoplanetary atmospheres but are usually not posed from the perspective of host stars. Accordingly, both host stars and exoplanets are not studied in isolation but are treated as integrated systems. Stellar magnetic fields, which are the energy source for activity phenomena including high-energy radiation and winds, play a critical role in determining whether exoplanets are habitable. This text is primarily for researchers and graduate students who are studying exoplanet atmospheres and habitability, but who may not have a background in the physics and phenomenology of host stars that provide the environment in which exoplanets evolve. It provides a comprehensive overview of this broad topic rather than going deeply into many technical aspects but includes a large list of references to guide those interested in pursuing these questions.  Nonspecialists with a scientific background should also find this text a valuable resource for understanding the critical issues of contemporary exoplanet research.

This primer begins with a brief introduction to the main ideas underlying Effective Field Theory (EFT) and describes how nuclear forces are obtained from first principles by introducing a Euclidean space-time lattice for chiral EFT.

Since jet substructure calculations are multi-scale problems that call for all-order treatments (resummations), the bases of such calculations are discussed for simple jet quantities. With these QCD and jet physics ingredients in hand, readers can then dig into jet substructure itself.

Dark matter is a frequently discussed topic in contemporary particle physics. Written strictly in the language of particle physics and quantum field theory, these course-based lecture notes focus on a set of standard calculations that students need in order to understand weakly interacting dark matter candidates. After introducing some general features of these dark matter agents and their main competitors, the Higgs portal scalar and supersymmetric neutralinos are introduced as our default models. In turn, this serves as a basis for exploring four experimental aspects: the dark matter relic density extracted from the cosmic microwave background; indirect detection including the Fermi galactic center excess; direct detection; and collider searches. Alternative approaches, like an effective theory of dark matter and simplified models, naturally follow from the discussions of these four experimental directions.

Colloidal plasmas - a still emerging field of plasma physics - enable the study of basic plasma properties on a microscopic kinetic level and allow the visualization of collective plasma phenomena, like oscillations and waves. Moreover, a vast number of novel phenomena are found in these systems, ranging from Coulomb crystallization to new types of forces and waves. Last but not least, they shed a new light on various traditional aspects of plasma physics such as shielding or the mechanism of acoustic waves in plasmas, thus providing new insight into the basic foundations of plasma physics.These course-based and self-contained lecture notes provide a general introduction to this active and growing field to students and nonspecialists, requiring only basic prior knowledge in plasma physics. ​

This book is based on Valery Zagrebaev's original papers and lecture materials on nuclear physics with heavy ions, which he prepared and extended through many years for the students of nuclear physics specialties.Thе book outlines the main experimental facts on nuclear reactions involving heavy ions at low energies. It focuses on discussions of nuclear physics processes that are a subject of active, modern research and it gives illustrative explanations of these phenomena in the framework of up-to-date theoretical concepts.This textbook is intended for students in physics who have completed a standard course of quantum mechanics and have basic ideas of nuclear physics processes.It is designed as a kind of lifeboat that, at the end of the course, will allow students to navigate the modern scientific literature and to understand the goals and objectives of current, on-going research.

This graduate-level primer presents a tutorial introduction to and overview of N = 2 supergravity theories - with 8 real supercharges and in 4, 5 and 6 dimensions. First, the construction of such theories by superconformal methods is explained in detail, and relevant special geometries are obtained and characterized.

This book provides an introduction to topics in non-equilibrium quantum statistical physics for both mathematicians and theoretical physicists. The quantum kinetic theory developed in the second part is an extension of Boltzmann's classical (non-quantum) kinetic theory of a dilute gas of quantum bosons.

Tensor network is a fundamental mathematical tool with a huge range of applications in physics, such as condensed matter physics, statistic physics, high energy physics, and quantum information sciences.

This concise book introduces and discusses the basic theory of conical intersections with applications in atomic, molecular and condensed matter physics.Conical intersections are linked to the energy of quantum systems. They can occur in any physical system characterized by both slow and fast degrees of freedom - such as e.g. the fast electrons and slow nuclei of a vibrating and rotating molecule - and are important when studying the evolution of quantum systems controlled by classical parameters. Furthermore, they play a relevant role for understanding the topological properties of condensed matter systems.Conical intersections are associated with many interesting features, such as a breakdown of the Born-Oppenheimer approximation and the appearance of nontrivial artificial gauge structures, similar to the Aharonov-Bohm effect.Some applications presented in this book include- Molecular Systems: some molecules in nonlinear nuclear configurations undergo Jahn-Teller distortions under which the molecule lower their symmetry if the electronic states belong to a degenerate irreducible representation of the molecular point group.- Solid State Physics: different types of Berry phases associated with conical intersections can be used to detect topologically nontrivial states of matter, such as topological insulators, Weyl semi-metals, as well as Majorana fermions in superconductors.- Cold Atoms: the motion of cold atoms in slowly varying inhomogeneous laser fields is governed by artificial gauge fields that arise when averaging over the fast internal degrees of freedom of the atoms. These gauge fields can be Abelian or non-Abelian, which opens up the possibility to create analogs to various relativistic effects at low speed.