Logic

Stan Baronett is a master teacher and the author of Theories of Norm Violations (Indiana University Press, 1985), Journey into Philosophy: An Introduction with Classic and Contemporary Readings (Routledge, 2017), and Logic, Fifth Edition (OUP, 2022).

[Logic is] an excellent, affordable, interactive, introductory logic text sure to help you spend less time grading and more time chatting with students about logic problems." -Andrea Reynolds, Ventura College

• PrefacePart I Setting the StageChapter 1 What Logic Studies A. Statements and Arguments B. Recognizing Arguments Exercises 1B C. Arguments and Explanations Exercises 1C D. Truth and Logic E. Deductive and Inductive Arguments Exercises 1EF. Deductive Arguments: Validity and Soundness Argument Form Counterexamples Part II Informal LogicChapter 2 Language MattersA. Intension and Extension Terms, Use, and Mention Two Kinds of Meaning Proper Names Exercises 2A B. Using Intensional Definitions Synonymous Definitions Word Origin Definitions Operational Definitions Definition by Genus and Difference C. Using Extensional Definitions Ostensive Definitions Enumerative Definitions Definition by Subclass Exercises 2C D. Applying Definitions Stipulative Definitions Lexical Definitions Functional Definitions Precising Definitions Theoretical Definitions Persuasive Definitions Exercises 2D E. Guidelines for Informative Definitions Exercises 2E F. Cognitive and Emotive Meaning Exercises 2FG. Factual and Verbal Disputes Exercises 2G SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: THE PATHChapter 3 Diagramming Arguments A. The Basics of Diagramming Arguments B. Diagramming Extended Arguments Exercises 3B SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: THE TRAIN TO VEGAS Chapter 4 Informal Fallacies A. Why Study Fallacies?B. Fallacies Based on Personal Attacks or Emotional Appeals Fallacies Based on Personal Attacks 1. Ad Hominem Abusive 2. Ad Hominem Circumstantial 3. Poisoning the Well 4. Tu Quoque Fallacies Based on Emotional Appeals 5. Appeal to the People 6. Appeal to Pity 7. Appeal to Fear or Force Summary of Fallacies Based on Personal Attacks Summary of Fallacies Based on Emotional Appeals Exercises 4B C. Weak Inductive Argument Fallacies Generalization Fallacies 8. Rigid Application of a Generalization 9. Hasty Generalization 10. Composition 11. Division 12. Biased Sample False Cause Fallacies 13. Post Hoc 14. Slippery Slope Summary of Weak Inductive Argument Fallacies Exercises 4C D. Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption or Diversion Unwarranted Assumption 15. Begging the Question 16. Complex Question 17. Appeal to Ignorance 18. Appeal to an Unqualified Authority 19. False Dichotomy Fallacies of Diversion 20. Equivocation 21. Straw Man 22. Red Herring 23. Misleading Precision 24. Missing the Point Summary of Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption and Diversion Exercises 4D E. Recognizing Fallacies in Ordinary Language Exercises 4E SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: A CLEVER PROBLEM Part III Formal LogicChapter 5 Categorical Propositions A. Categorical Propositions Exercises 5A B. Quantity, Quality, and Distribution Exercises 5B C. Existential Import D. The Modern Square of Opposition and Venn Diagrams Venn Diagrams Exercises 5D E. Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition in the Modern Square Conversion Obversion Contraposition Diagrams Summary of Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition Exercises 5E F. The Traditional Square of Opposition and Venn Diagrams Exercises 5F.1 Venn Diagrams and the Traditional Square Exercises 5F.2G. Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition in the Traditional Square Summary of Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition Conversion Obversion Contraposition Exercises 5GH. Translating Ordinary Language into Categorical Propositions Missing Plural Nouns Nonstandard Verbs Singular Propositions Adverbs and Pronouns "It Is False That..." Implied Quantifiers Nonstandard Quantifiers Conditional Statements Exclusive Propositions "The Only" Propositions Requiring Two Translations Exercises 5H SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: GROUP RELATIONSHIP Chapter 6 Categorical SyllogismsA. Standard-Form Categorical Syllogisms B. Mood and Figure Exercises 6BC. Diagramming in the Modern Interpretation Diagramming A-Propositions Diagramming E-Propositions Diagramming I-Propositions Diagramming O-Propositions Wrapping Up the X Is the Syllogism Valid? Exercises 6C D. Rules and Fallacies Under the Modern Interpretation Rule 1: The middle term must be distributed in at least one premise. Associated Fallacy: Undistributed Middle Rule 2: If a term is distributed in the conclusion, then it must be distributed in a premise. Associated Fallacies: Illicit Major/Illicit Minor Rule 3: A categorical syllogism cannot have two negative premises. Associated Fallacy: Exclusive Premises Rule 4: A negative premise must have a negative conclusion. Associated Fallacy: Affirmative Conclusion/Negative Premise Rule 5: A negative conclusion must have a negative premise. Associated Fallacy: Negative Conclusion/Affirmative Premises Rule 6: Two universal premises cannot have a particular conclusion. Associated Fallacy: Existential Fallacy Summary of Rules Exercises 6DE. Diagramming in the Traditional Interpretation A-Propositions E-Propositions Exercises 6E F. Rules and Fallacies Under the Traditional Interpretation Exercises 6F G. Ordinary Language Arguments Reducing the Number of Terms in an Argument Exercises 6G.1 Paraphrasing Ordinary Language Arguments Categorical Propositions and Multiple Arguments Exercises 6G.2 H. Enthymemes Exercises 6HI. Sorites Exercises 6I SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: RELATIONSHIPS REVISITEDChapter 7 Propositional LogicA. Logical Operators and Translations Simple and Compound Statements Negation Conjunction DisjunctionConditional Distinguishing "If" from "Only If" Sufficient and Necessary Conditions Biconditional Summary of Operators and Ordinary Language Exercises 7A B. Compound Statements Well-Formed Formulas Exercises 7B.1 Main Operator Exercises 7B.2 Translations and the Main Operator Exercises 7B.3C. Truth Functions Defining the Five Logical Operators Negation Conjunction Disjunction Conditional Biconditional Exercises 7C.1 Operator Truth Tables and Ordinary Language Propositions with Assigned Truth Values Exercises 7C.2 D. Truth Tables for Propositions Arranging the Truth Values The Order of Operations Exercises 7D E. Contingent and Noncontingent Statements Tautology Self-Contradiction Exercises 7E F. Logical Equivalence and Contradictory, Consistent, and Inconsistent Statements Logical Equivalence Exercises 7F.1 Contradictory, Consistent, and Inconsistent Statements Exercises 7F.2 G. Truth Tables for Arguments Validity Analyzing Sufficient and Necessary Conditions in Arguments Technical Validity Exercises 7G.1 Argument Forms Exercises 7G.2 H. Indirect Truth Tables Thinking Through an Argument A Shorter Truth Table Exercises 7H.1 Using Indirect Truth Tables to Examine Statements for Consistency Exercises 7H.2 SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: A CARD PROBLEMChapter 8 Natural Deduction A. Natural DeductionB. Implication Rules I Modus Ponens (MP) Modus Tollens (MT) Hypothetical Syllogism (HS) Disjunctive Syllogism (DS) Justification: Applying the Rules of Inference Exercises 8B C. Tactics and Strategy Applying the First Four Implication Rules Exercises 8C D. Implication Rules II Simplification (Simp) Conjunction (Conj) Addition (Add) Constructive Dilemma (CD) Applying the Second Four Implication Rules Exercises 8D E. Replacement Rules I De Morgan (DM) Double Negation (DN) Commutation (Com) Association (Assoc) Distribution (Dist) Applying the First Five Replacement Rules Exercises 8E F. Replacement Rules II Transposition (Trans) Material Implication (Impl) Material Equivalence (Equiv) Exportation (Exp) Tautology (Taut) Applying the Second Five Replacement Rules Exercises 8F G. Conditional Proof Exercises 8G H. Indirect Proof Exercises 8H I. Proving Logical Truths Exercises 8I SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: THE TRUTH Chapter 9 Predicate Logic A. Translating Ordinary Language Singular Statements Universal Statements Particular Statements Paying Attention to Meaning Exercises 9A B. Four New Rules of Inference Universal Instantiation (UI) Universal Generalization (UG) Existential Generalization (EG) Existential Instantiation (EI) Summary of the Four Rules Tactics and Strategy Exercises 9B C. Change of Quantifier (CQ) Exercises 9C D. Conditional and Indirect Proof Conditional Proof (CP) Indirect Proof (IP) Exercises 9D E. Demonstrating Invalidity Counterexample Method Finite Universe Method Indirect Truth Tables Exercises 9E F. Relational Predicates Translations Exercises 9F.1 Proofs A New Restriction Change of Quantifier Conditional Proof and Indirect Proof Exercises 9F.2 G. Identity Simple Identity Statements "Only" "The Only""No... Except" "All Except" Superlatives "At Most" "At Least" "Exactly" Definite Descriptions Summary of Identity Translations Exercises 9G.1 Proofs Exercises 9G.2 SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: YOUR NAME AND AGE, PLEASE Part IV Inductive Logic?Chapter 10 Analogical Arguments A. The Framework of Analogical Arguments Exercises 10AB. Analyzing Analogical Arguments Criteria for Analyzing Analogical Arguments Exercises 10BC. Strategies of Evaluation Disanalogies Counteranalogy Unintended Consequences Combining Strategies Exercises 10C SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: BEAT THE CHEATChapter 11 Legal Arguments A. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning B. Conditional Statements C. Sufficient and Necessary ConditionsD. Disjunction and Conjunction E. Analyzing a Complex Rule Exercises 11EF. Analogies G. The Role of Precedent Exercises 11G SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: A GUILTY PROBLEMChapter 12 Moral ArgumentsA. Value Judgments Justifying "Should" Types of Value Judgments Taste and Value Exercises 12A B. Moral Theories Emotivism Consequentialism Egoism Utilitarianism Deontology Relativism Contrasting Moral Theories Exercises 12B C. The Naturalistic Fallacy D. The Structure of Moral ArgumentsE. Analogies and Moral Arguments Exercises 12E SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: DANGEROUS CARGO Chapter 13 Statistical Arguments and Probability A. Samples and Populations Exercises 13A B. Statistical Averages Exercises 13B C. Standard Deviation Dividing the Curve The Size of the Standard Deviation How to Calculate the Standard Deviation Exercises 13C 625D. What If the Results Are Skewed? E. The Misuse of Statistics Exercises 13EF. Probability Theories A Priori Theory Relative Frequency Theory Subjectivist Theory G. Probability Calculus Conjunction Methods Disjunction Methods Negation Method Exercises 13G H. True Odds in Games of ChanceI. Bayesian Theory Exercises 13I SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: THE SECOND CHILDChapter 14 Causality and Scientific ArgumentsA. Sufficient and Necessary Conditions Exercises 14A B. Causality C. Mill's Methods Method of Agreement Method of Difference Joint Method of Agreement and Difference Method of Residues Method of Concomitant Variations Exercises 14C D. Limitations of Mill's Methods E. Theoretical and Experimental ScienceF. Inference to the Best ExplanationG. Hypothesis Testing, Experiments, and Predictions Controlled Experiments Determining Causality H. Science and Superstition The Need for a Fair Test Verifiable Predictions Nontrivial Predictions Connecting the Hypothesis and Prediction Putting It All Together Science and Superstition The Allure of Superstition Exercises 14H SUMMARY KEY TERMS LOGIC CHALLENGE: THE SCALE AND THE COINS Online Chapter 15 Analyzing a Long EssayA. Childbed FeverB. Vienna Exercises 15BC. Miasm and Contagion Exercises 15CD. Semmelweis's Account of the Discovery Exercises 15DE. Initial Questions Exercises 15EF. A New Interpretation Exercises 15F SUMMARY BIBLIOGRAPHY Appendix A Cognitive Bias Heuristics Heuristics and Algorithms The Link Between Heuristics and Cognitive Biases Theories of Judgment Cognitive Biases 1. Belief Bias 2. Confirmation Bias 3. Status Quo Bias 4. Availability Bias 5. Halo Bias 6. Functional Fixedness Bias 7. Anchoring Bias 8. Gambling Biases 9. Frequency Bias 10. Ingroup Bias 11. Fundamental Attribution Bias Can We Overcome Cognitive Biases? Appendix B The LSAT and Logical Reasoning Introduction 1. Logical Reasoning2. Deductive and Inductive Arguments3. Identifying Conclusions and Premises A. Identifying the Conclusion B. Choosing the Best Missing Conclusion C. Assumptions: Choosing the Best Missing Premise 4. Additional Information that Strengthens or Weakens an Argument5. Arguments that Use Either Analogical, Statistical, or Causal Reasoning A. Analogical Reasoning B. Statistical Reasoning C. Causal Reasoning6. Explaining or Resolving Given Information 7. Argument Flaws A. Fallacies Based on Personal Attacks or Emotional Appeals B. Weak Inductive Argument Fallacies C. Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption or Diversion8.Recognizing Reasoning Patterns A. Class Terms B. Conditional Statements C. Translating Conditional Statements D. Distinguishing "If" from "Only If" E. Conditionals and Arguments F. Sufficient and Necessary Conditions 9. Continuing the Process Glossary Answers to Selected Exercises Index