Handbook of Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering

Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad is Emeritus Professor in the School of Life Sciences at the University of Hyderabad in India. He has published over 216 papers in scholarly journals and edited 34 books. He received his doctorate in Botany from Lucknow University, India in 1979. Based on an independent study by Stanford University scientists in 2020, he figured in the top 2% of scientists from India, ranked number 1 in Environmental Sciences (116 in world).

• List of Contributors xviiPreface xxi1 Ecological Engineering and Ecosystem Services – Theory and Practice 1Fábio Carvalho Nunes, Thaís de Marchi Soares, Lander de Jesus Alves, José Rodrigues de Souza Filho, Cláudia Cseko Nolasco de Carvalho, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad1.1 Introduction 11.2 Ecological Engineering: History and Definition 31.3 Ecosystem Services: History, Concepts, and Dimensions 71.3.1 Sizing Ecosystem Services 101.3.2 Agriculture and Ecosystem Services 151.4 Final Considerations: Challenges for the Future 19Notes 20References 202 Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering for Economic-Environmental Revitalization 25Bruno Barbosa and Ana Luísa Fernando2.1 Introduction 252.2 Revitalization of Physical/Environmental Factors 272.2.1 Low Temperature 272.2.2 Limited Soil Drainage and Shallow Rooting Depth 282.2.3 Unfavorable Texture and Stoniness 292.2.4 Sloping Areas 302.2.5 Dryness 302.2.6 Waterlogging 312.3 Revitalization of Chemical Factors 322.3.1 Acidity 322.3.2 Heavy Metals and Organic Contaminants 332.3.3 Salinity and Sodicity 342.4 Economic Revitalization of Degraded Soil Ecosystems 352.5 Conclusions 36References 373 Environmental Issues and Priority Areas for Ecological Engineering Initiatives 47Sanchayita Rajkhowa, Nazmun Ara Khanom, and Jyotirmoy Sarma3.1 Introduction 473.2 Basic Concepts of Ecological Engineering 503.3 Practice and Implication of Ecological Engineering 533.4 Priority Areas for Ecological Engineering 543.4.1 Coastal Ecosystem Restoration 553.4.2 Mangrove Restoration 563.4.3 River and Wetland Restoration 573.4.4 Ecological Engineering in Soil Restoration and Agriculture 593.5 Conclusion 61Notes 62References 634 Soil Meso- and Macrofauna Indicators of Restoration Success in Rehabilitated Mine Sites 67Sara Pelaez Sanchez, Ronan Courtney, and Olaf Schmidt4.1 Introduction 674.2 Restoration to Combat Land Degradation 674.3 Mine Rehabilitation 684.3.1 Mine Tailings 684.3.2 Rehabilitation of Mine Tailings 684.3.3 The Challenge of Metal Mine Rehabilitation 684.4 Restoration Success Assessment: Monitoring Diversity, Vegetation, and Ecological Processes 694.4.1 Monitoring Diversity 704.4.2 Vegetation 704.4.3 Ecological Processes 714.5 Gaps in the Assessment of Restoration Success in Mine Sites 724.6 Increasing Restoration Success by Enhancing Soil Biodiversity and Soil Multifunctionality 734.7 Using Keystone Species and Ecosystem Engineers in Restoration 744.7.1 Earthworms 834.7.2 Ants 844.7.3 Termites 854.7.4 Collembola and Mites 854.8 Conclusions and Further Perspective for the Restoration of Metalliferous Tailings 85Acknowledgements 86References 865 Ecological Engineering and Green Infrastructure in Mitigating Emerging Urban Environmental Threats 95Florin-Constantin Mihai, Petra Schneider, and Mihail Eva5.1 Dimensions of Ecological Engineering in the Frame of Ecosystem Service Provision 955.2 Landfill Afteruse Practices Based on Ecological Engineering and Green Infrastructure 975.2.1 Old Landfill Closure and Rehabilitation Procedures 975.2.2 Landfill Restoration Examples Around the World 985.2.2.1 Conventional Landfill Closure (Campulung, Romania) 985.2.2.2 Elbauenpark Including Am Cracauer Anger Landfill (Magdeburg, Germany) 995.2.2.3 World Cup Park (Nanjido Landfill, Seoul, South Korea) 995.2.2.4 Fudekeng Environmental Restoration Park (Taiwan) 1005.2.2.5 Hong Kong 1005.2.2.6 Hyria Landfill Site (Tel Aviv, Israel) 1015.2.2.7 Valdemingomez Forest Park (Madrid, Spain) 1025.2.2.8 Freshkills Park – A Mega Restoration Project in the US 1035.3 Role of Ecological Engineering in Transforming Brownfields into Greenfields 1045.3.1 UGI Options for Brownfield Recycling 1075.3.2 Pilot Case: Restoration of a Brownfield to Provide ES – Albert Railway Station (Dresden, Germany) Transformation into the Weißeritz Greenbelt 1075.4 Green Infrastructures for Mitigating Urban Transport-Induced Threats 1125.4.1 Transportation Heritage from the Industrial Period 1125.4.2 The Cases of the Rose Kennedy Greenway and Cheonggyecheon River Restoration 1135.4.2.1 The Concept: Expressway-to-Greenway Conversion 1135.4.2.2 Environmental Efficiency and Effectiveness 1145.4.2.3 Social Impact 1165.4.2.4 Economic Efficiency 1165.5 Conclusions 117References 1186 Urban Environmental Issues and Mitigation by Applying Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 123Shailendra Yadav, Suvha Lama, and Atya Kapley6.1 Urbanization 1236.2 Global Trends of Urbanization and Its Consequences 1246.3 Urban Environmental Issues 1256.3.1 Physical Urban Environmental Issues 1266.3.1.1 Urban Heat Islands 1266.3.1.2 Urban Flooding 1276.3.1.3 Urban Pollution (Air, Water, Noise) and Waste Management 1286.3.2 Biological Urban Environmental Issues 1306.3.2.1 Declining Urban Ecosystem Services Due to Loss of Biodiversity 1306.3.2.2 Increasing Disease Epidemiology 1316.4 Ecosystem Engineering 1336.5 Approaches for Mitigation of Urban Environmental Issues 1346.5.1 Nature-Based Solutions 1346.5.1.1 Green Infrastructure (GI) 1346.5.1.2 Urban Wetlands and Riparian Forests 1366.5.1.3 Solar Energy 1366.5.2 Artificial Engineering Approaches 1376.5.3 Landfill Gas as an Alternative Source of Energy: Waste to Wealth 1376.5.3.1 Wastewater/Sewage Treatment Plants as Sources of Energy 1376.5.3.2 Rainwater Harvesting 1376.5.3.3 Constructed Floating Islands for Water Treatment 1386.5.3.4 Microgrids 1386.6 Future Perspective 138Acknowledgments 139References 1397 Soil Fertility Restoration, Theory and Practice 147V. Matichenkov and E. Bocharnikova7.1 Introduction 1477.2 Materials and Methods 1487.3 Results 1497.4 Discussion and Conclusions 151Acknowledgment 155References 1558 Extracellular Soil Enzymes Act as Moderators to Restore Carbon in Soil Habitats 159Rupinder Kaur and Anand Narain Singh8.1 Introduction 1598.2 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 1618.3 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) 1628.4 Soil Carbon Sequestration 1628.5 Extracellular Soil Enzymes 1648.6 Interactive Role of Extracellular Soil Enzymes in Soil Carbon Transformation 1668.6.1 Cellulase 1678.6.2 β-Glucosidase 1698.6.3 Invertase 1708.6.4 Amylase 1708.6.5 Xylanase 1718.7 Conclusion 172References 1729 Ecological Engineering for Solid Waste Segregation, Reduction, and Resource Recovery – A Contextual Analysis in Brazil 183Luís P. Azevedo, Fernando G. da Silva Araújo, Carlos A.F. Lagarinhos, Jorge A.S. Tenório, Denise C.R. Espinosa, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad9.1 Introduction 1839.2 Municipal Solid Waste in Brazil 1889.3 Compostable Waste 1899.4 Anaerobic Digestion 1909.5 Recycling 1909.6 Burning Waste Tires 1909.7 Energy Recovery 1919.8 Coprocessing Industrial Waste in Cement Kilns 1929.9 Conclusions 193References 19510 Urban Floods and Mitigation by Applying Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 201Jyotirmoy Sarma and Sanchayita Rajkhowa10.1 Sustainable Ecosystems through Engineering Approaches 20110.2 Flooding and, Specifically, Urban Flooding as a Problem of Interest 20210.3 Causes and Impacts of Urban Flooding 20410.4 Protection Against and Mitigation of Urban Flooding in the Context of Sustainability 20710.4.1 Living with Floods as a Sustainable Approach 20810.4.2 Urban Flood Risk Management 20810.4.3 Integrated and Interactive Flood Management 20910.4.4 Structural and Nonstructural Measures for Flood Control 21010.4.5 River and Wetland Restoration 21110.4.6 Low Impact Development (LID) and Best Management Practices (BMPs) 21410.5 Conclusions and Future Scope 215References 21611 Ecological Engineering and Restoration of Mine Ecosystems 219Marcin Pietrzykowski11.1 Background and Definitions 21911.2 Ecological Criteria for Successful Mine Site Restoration 22211.3 Examples of Reclamation Technology and Afforestation in Mining Areas 22311.4 Selected Reclamation Practices Versus Mining Extraction and Environmental Conditions 22611.5 Final Comments and Remarks 227References 22812 Ecological Restoration of Abandoned Mine Land: Theory to Practice 231Jitendra Ahirwal and Subodh Kumar Maiti12.1 Introduction 23112.2 Integration of Ecology Theory, Restoration Ecology, and Ecological Restoration 23312.2.1 Disturbance 23312.2.2 Succession 23312.2.3 Fragmentation 23312.2.4 Ecosystem Functions 23312.2.5 Restoration 23312.2.6 Reclamation 23412.2.7 Rehabilitation 23412.2.8 Regeneration 23412.2.9 Recovery 23412.3 Restoration Planning 23512.4 Components of Restoration 23612.4.1 Natural Processes 23612.4.2 Physical and Nutritional Constraints 23612.4.3 Species Diversity 23712.5 Afforestation of Mine-Degraded Land 23712.5.1 Miyawaki Planting Methods 23712.6 Methods of Evaluating Ecological Restoration Success 23912.6.1 Criteria for Restoration Success 23912.6.2 Indicator Parameters of a Restored Ecosystem 24012.6.3 Soil Quality Index 24112.7 Development of a Post-Mining Ecosystem: A Case Study in India 24212.8 Conclusions and Future Research 244References 24513 Wetland, Watershed, and Lake Restoration 247Bhupinder Dhir13.1 Introduction 24713.2 Renovation of Wastewater 24713.2.1 Physical Methods 24813.2.2 Chemical Methods 24813.2.3 Biological Methods 24813.2.4 Other Methods 24913.3 Restoration of Bodies of Water 25013.3.1 Watersheds 25113.3.2 Wetlands 25213.3.2.1 Methods of Restoring Wetlands 25313.3.3 Rivers 25313.3.4 Lakes 25413.3.5 Streams 25413.3.6 Case Studies 25513.4 Problems Encountered in Restoration Projects 25513.5 Conclusion 256References 25614 Restoration of Riverine Health: An Ecohydrological Approach –Flow Regimes and Aquatic Biodiversity 261S.P. Biswas14.1 Introduction 26114.2 Habitat Ecology 26114.2.1 Riverine Habitats 26214.2.2 Linked Ecosystems 26214.3 Riverine Issues 26214.3.1 Bank Erosion, Siltation, and Aggradations of Rivers 26314.3.2 Deforestation in Catchment Areas 26414.3.3 River Pollution and Invasive Species 26614.3.4 Fishing Pressure 26614.3.5 Status of Wetlands (FPLs) 26714.3.6 Regulated Rivers and Their Impacts 26714.4 Ecorestoration of River Basins 26814.4.1 Environmental Flow 26814.4.2 Success Story of a Conservation Effort for Aquatic Fauna 26814.4.2.1 River Dolphins 26814.4.2.2 Hilsa Fishery 27014.4.3 Biomonitoring of Riverine Health and Ecosystem Engineering 27014.4.4 Integrated River Basin Management 27114.5 Summary and Conclusion 273Acknowledgments 274References 27415 Ecosystem Services of the Phoomdi Islands of Loktak, a Dying Ramsar Site in Northeast India 279Sijagurumayum Geetanjali Devi, Niteshwori Thongam, Maibam Dhanaraj Meitei, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad15.1 What Are Ecosystem Services? 27915.2 Phoomdi Islands of Loktak 27915.3 Ecosystem Degradation of Loktak 28015.4 Ecosystem Services Provided by the Phoomdi Islands of Loktak 28415.5 Phoomdi and Provisioning Services 28415.6 Phoomdi as Reservoirs of Biodiversity 28715.7 Phoomdi and Fisheries 28815.8 Phoomdi and Cultural Services 28815.9 Phoomdi and Regulating Services 28915.10 Phoomdi and Supporting Services 28915.11 Conclusion 290Acknowledgments 291References 29116 The Application of Reefs in Shoreline Protection 295Anu Joy and Anu Gopinath16.1 General Introduction 29516.2 Types of Coral Reefs 29616.3 Global Distribution of Coral Reefs 29616.4 Benefits of Coral Reefs 29616.5 Threats to Coral Reefs 29816.5.1 Global Threats 29816.5.1.1 Ocean Acidification 29916.5.1.2 Coral Bleaching 29916.5.1.3 Cyclones 30016.5.2 Local Threats 30016.5.2.1 Over-Fishing and Destructive Fishing Methods 30016.5.2.2 Coastal Development 30016.5.2.3 Recreational Activities 30016.5.2.4 Sedimentation 30016.5.2.5 Coral Mining and Harvesting 30016.5.2.6 Pollution 30116.5.2.7 Invasive Species 30116.6 Important Coral Reefs of the World 30116.7 The Application of Reefs in Shoreline Protection 30316.7.1 Coral Reefs 30416.7.2 Oyster Reefs 30716.7.3 Artificial Reefs 30716.7.4 Coral Reef Restoration 30816.7.5 Oyster Reef Restoration 30916.8 Conclusion 310References 31017 Mangroves, as Shore Engineers, Are Nature-Based Solutions for Ensuring Coastal Protection 317Ajanta Dey, J.R.B. Alfred, Biswajit Roy Chowdhury, and Udo Censkowsky17.1 Introduction 31717.2 Sundarban: A Case Study 31817.3 Restoration Models 31917.4 Methodology 32017.5 Results and Analysis 32617.6 Conclusion 329Acknowledgments 330References 33118 Forest Degradation Prevention Through Nature-Based Solutions: An Indian Perspective 333Purabi Saikia, Akash Nag, Rima Kumari, Amit Kumar, and M.L. Khan18.1 Introduction 33318.2 Causes of Forests Degradation and Present Status Forests in India 33518.3 Effects of Forest Degradation 33818.4 Forest Degradation Management Strategies 33918.5 Policies for Preventing Forest Degradation 33918.6 Ecological Engineering: A Tool for Restoration of Degraded Forests 34118.7 Forest Landscape Restoration: A Nature-Based Solution 34218.8 Success Stories of ER from India 34218.9 Yamuna Biodiversity Park 34318.10 Ecological Restoration in Corbett National Park 34318.11 Conclusion and Recommendations 345References 34519 Restoring Ecosystem Services of Degraded Forests in a Changing Climate 353Smita Chaudhry, Gagan Preet Singh Sidhu, and Rashmi Paliwal19.1 Introduction 35319.2 Role of Forests in Maintaining Ecological Balance and Providing Services 35419.2.1 Forests and Rainfall 35519.2.2 Forests and Carbon Sequestration 35519.2.3 Forests and Climate 35619.2.4 Forests and Soil Erosion 35619.2.5 Forest and Water Quality 35719.3 Types of Forests in India 35719.4 Forest Degradation 35719.4.1 Invasive Alien Species 36019.4.2 Forest Fires 36119.4.3 Overpopulation and Exploitation of Forest Resources 36119.4.4 Overgrazing 36119.5 Impacts of Forest Degradation 36219.5.1 Carbon Sequestration 36219.6 Nutritional Status of Soil 36219.7 Hydrological Regimes 36219.8 Ecological Services 36319.9 Social Implications 36319.10 Methods for Restoring and Rehabilitating Forests 36419.11 Conclusion 367References 36820 Forest Degradation Prevention 377Marta Jaskulak and Anna Grobelak20.1 Introduction 37720.2 The Problem of Forest Degradation 37920.3 Assessing Levels of Forest Degradation 38020.4 Drivers of Forest Degradation 38220.4.1 Strategies to Address Causes of Forest Degradation 38220.4.2 The Hierarchy of Land Degradation Responses 38320.5 The Role of Forest Management in Degradation Prevention 38420.5.1 Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) for Prevention of Degradation and the Restoration of Degraded Areas 38520.6 Conclusions – Prioritization and Implementation 387References 38721 Use of Plants for Air Quality Improvement 391Richa Rai, Madhoolika Agrawal, and S.B. Agrawal21.1 Introduction 39121.2 Current Status of Air Pollutants 39221.3 Green Roofs, Urban Forests, and Air Pollution 39321.4 Traits for Phytoremediation of Air Pollution 39721.4.1 Physiological and Biochemical Traits 39821.5 Conclusions 400References 40022 Phylloremediation for Mitigating Air Pollution 405Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad22.1 Introduction 40522.2 Significance of Tree Canopy Architecture and Types of Canopies for Mitigating Air Pollution 40722.3 Air-Improving Qualities of Plants 41422.3.1 Dust-Capturing Mechanisms Using Plants 41422.3.2 Environmental Factors for Efficient Dust Capture by Plants 41422.3.2.1 Light Intensity 41422.3.2.2 Moisture 41422.3.2.3 Wind Velocity 41422.4 Effects of Vegetation on Urban Air Quality 41422.4.1 Interception and Absorption of Pollution 41422.4.2 Temperature Effects 41622.4.3 Impact on Energy Use 41622.5 Urban Air Quality Improvement through Dust-Capturing Plant Species 416Acknowledgments 417References 41723 Green Belts for Sustainable Improvement of Air Quality 423S.B. Chaphekar, R.P. Madav, and Seemaa S. Ghate23.1 Introduction 42323.2 Tolerance of Plants to Air Pollutants 42423.2.1 Agro-Climates in India 42523.2.2 Green Belts 42623.2.3 Choosing Plant Species 42723.2.4 Designing Green Belts 42723.2.4.1 Ground-Level Concentration (GLC) of Emitted Pollutants 42723.2.4.2 Mathematical Model 42923.2.4.3 Two Approaches 43023.2.4.4 Planting Along Roadsides 43023.2.4.5 Choice of Plants for Roadsides 43123.2.4.6 Nurturing Green Belts 43123.3 Conclusion 433References 43324 Air Quality Improvement Using Phytodiversity and Plant Architecture 437D.N. Magana-Arachchi and R.P. Wanigatunge24.1 Introduction 43724.2 Phytodiversity 43824.3 Plant Architecture 43824.3.1 Leaf Architecture – Regulation of Leaf Position 43924.3.2 Development of Internal Leaf Architecture 43924.4 Phytoremediation 44024.4.1 Role of Plants During Particulate Matter and Gaseous Phytoremediation 44024.4.2 Ways of Improving Air Quality 44224.4.2.1 Outdoor Air Pollutants 44224.4.2.2 Indoor Air Pollutants 44424.4.2.3 Phyllosphere Microorganisms 44424.5 Conclusion 446Acknowledgment 446References 44625 Information Explosion in Digital Ecosystems and Their Management 451Chanchal Kumar Mitra and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad25.1 Introduction 45125.1.1 Digital Computers 45225.1.2 Modern Architectures for Computer Systems 45225.1.3 Microprocessors 45425.1.4 Networks of Computers 45425.1.5 Development of Databases 45525.1.6 Data as Knowledge 45625.2 Growth 45625.2.1 Traditional Models for Growth 45625.2.2 Growth Curves 45725.2.3 Limits of Growth 45825.2.4 Growth vs. Life 45925.3 Sustainability 45925.3.1 Production vs. Consumption 45925.4 Knowledge vs. Information 46025.5 Circulation of Information 46025.6 Quality vs. Quantity 46125.6.1 Case Study 1: Facebook and Cambridge Analytica Scandal 46125.6.2 Case Study 2: Aarogya Setu Mobile App by National Informatics Centre (NIC) of the GoI 46225.7 How Does the Digital Ecosystem Work? 46225.7.1 Digital Ecosystem and Sustainable Development 46325.7.2 SDG 4: Quality Education 46525.7.3 SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth 46525.7.4 SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure 46525.7.5 SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities 46625.7.6 SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production 46625.8 Conclusions 466References 46626 Nanotechnology in Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 469L.R. Sendanayake, H.A.D.B. Amarasiri, and Nadeesh M. Adassooriya26.1 Ecology, Ecosystem, and Ecosystem Engineering 46926.2 Nanomaterials, Nanotechnology, and Nanoscience 46926.3 Nanotechnology in Ecological and Ecosystem-Engineering 47026.4 Nanotechnology to Remediate Environmental Pollution 47026.5 Environmental Remediation 47126.6 Surface Water Remediation 47126.6.1 Adsorption 47226.6.2 Photocatalysis 47326.6.3 Disinfection 47426.6.4 Nanomembranes 47526.7 Groundwater Remediation and Soil Remediation 47526.8 Air Remediation 47826.9 Future Scope of Nanotechnology and Nanoscience in Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 479References 480Index 487