Topics in Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences - Böcker

The ocean has entranced mankind for as long as we have gazed upon it, traversed it, dived into it, and studied it. It remains ever changing and seemingly never changing. Each wave that progresses through the. imme­ diate surf zone on every coast is strikingly different, yet the waves come again and again, as if never to end. The seasons come with essential reg­ ularity, and· yet each is individual-whatever did happen to that year of the normal rainfall or tidal behavior? This fascination with the currents of the ocean has always had a most immediate practical aspect: shipping, transportation, commerce, and war have depended upon our knowledge, when we had it, and floundered on our surprising ignorance more often than we wish to reflect. These important practical issues have commanded attention from commercial, academic, and military research scientists and engineers from the earliest era of organized scientific investigation. The matter of direct and insistent investigation was from the outset the behavior of ocean currents with long time scales; namely, those varying on annual or at least seasonal cycles. Planning for all the named enterprises depended, as they still do, of course, on the ability to predict with some certainty this class of phenomena. That ability, as with most physical sci­ ence, is predicated on a firm basis of observational fact to establish what, amorig the myriad of mathematical possibilities, is chosen by Nature as her expression of fact.

The concept of vorticity is of central importance in fluid mechanics and the change and variability of atmospheric flow is dominated by transient vortices of different time- and space scales. Of particular importance are the most in- tense vortices such as hurricanes, typhoons and tornadoes which are associated with extreme and hazardous weather events of great concern to society. In recent years the un- derstanding of these phenomena has grown due to increased and improved surveillance by satellites and aircraft as well as by numerical modelling and simulation, theoretical studies and laboratory experiments. The symposium on "Intense Atmospheric Vortices" was held at the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), Reading, England, July 14-17, 1981. The subject area of the Symposium was concerned with observational work, experimental models, theoretical and numerical studies in- volving hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes and related pheno- mena. The aim was to bring together experts on these meteo- rological processes and on the fundamental fluid-dynamic mechanisms for vorticity intensification from all parts of the world.Thirtyfour scientists participated in the Sympo- sium, including more than half of those leading world ex- perts in the field whom the organizers had invited.

Forecasting the weather for the long and medium range is a difficult and scientifically challenging problem. Since the first operational weather prediction by numerical methods was carried out (on the BESK computer in Stockholm, Sweden, 1954) . there has been an ever accelerating development in computer technology. Hand in hand has followed a tremendous increase in the complexity of the atmospheric models used for weather prediction. The ability of these models to predict future states of the atmosphere has also increased rapidly, both due to model development and due to more accurate and plentiful observations of the atmosphere to define the initial . state for model integrations. It may however be argued on theoretical grounds that even if we have an almost perfect model with almost perfect initial data, we will never be able to make an accurate weather prediction more than a few weeks ahead. This is due to the inherent instability of the atmosphere and work in this field was pioneered by E. Lorenz. It is generally referred to as atmospheric predict­ ability and in the opening chapter of this book Professor Lorenz gives us an overview of the problem of atmospheric predictability. The contributions to this book were originally presented at the 1981 ECMWF Seminar (ECMWF - European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts) which was held at ECMWF in Reading, England, in September 1981.

It is now well known that the mid-ocean flow is almost everywhere domi­ nated by so-called synoptic or meso-scale eddies, rotating about nearly vertical axes and extending throughout the water column. A typical mid­ ocean horizontal scale is 100 km and a time scale is 100 days: these meso­ scale eddies have swirl speeds of order 10 cm s -1 which are usually con­ siderably greater than the long-term average flow. Many types of eddies with somewhat different scales and characteristics have been identified. The existence of such eddies was suspected by navigators more than a century ago and confirmed by the world of C. O'D. Iselin and V. B. Stock­ man in the 1930's. Measurements from RIV Aries in 1959/60, using the then newly developed neutrally buoyant floats, indicated the main char­ acteristics of the eddies in the deep ocean of the NW Atlantic while a se­ ries of Soviet moored current-meter arrays culminated, in POLYGON- 1970, in the explicit mapping of an energetic anticyclonic eddy in the tropical NE Atlantic. In 1973 a large collaborative (mainly U. S. , U. K. ) program, MODE-I, produced synoptic charts for an area of the NW At­ lantic and confirmed the existence of an open ocean eddy field and es­ tablished its characteristics. Meso-scale eddies are now known to be of interest and importance to marine chemists and biologists as well as to physical oceanographers and meteorologists.

Numerical weather prediction on the one hand needs a very large number of floating point calculations, but on the other hand is very time-critical. Therefore, the largest computers available, i.e., the "supercomputers", have usually been acquired by the national meteorological services long before they were used in other fields of research or business. Since the available technology limits the speed of any single computer, parallel computations have become necessary to achieve further improvements in the number of results produced per time unit. This book collects the papers presented at two workshops held at ECMWF on the topic of parallel processing in meteorological models. It provides an insight into the state-of-the-art in using parallel processors operationally and allows extrapolation to other time-critical applications. It also shows trends in migrating to massive parallel systems in the near future.