Debates in Subject Teaching – serie

This new and updated second edition of Debates in Mathematics Education explores the major issues that mathematics teachers encounter in their daily lives. By engaging with established and contemporary debates, this volume promotes and supports critical reflection and aims to stimulate both novice and experienced teachers to reach informed judgements and argue their point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding.Divided into five accessible sections, this book investigates and offers fresh insight into topics of central importance in mathematics education, with this second edition including new discussions and chapters on: Classic and contemporary issues of pedagogy, politics, philosophy and sociology of mathematics education International comparisons of achievement Digital technologies for teaching Mastery in mathematics Pop culture and mathematics Whether mathematics can be harmfulDesigned to stimulate discussion and support you in your own research, writing and practice through suggested questions and activities throughout, Debates in Mathematics Education will be a valuable resource for any student or practising teacher, and those engaged in initial teacher education, continuing professional development or Master's level study. This book also has much to offer to those leading mathematics departments in schools and initial teacher education programmes, and to beginning doctoral students looking for a survey of the field of mathematics education research.

This new and updated second edition of Debates in Mathematics Education explores the major issues that mathematics teachers encounter in their daily lives. By engaging with established and contemporary debates, this volume promotes and supports critical reflection and aims to stimulate both novice and experienced teachers to reach informed judgements and argue their point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding.Divided into five accessible sections, this book investigates and offers fresh insight into topics of central importance in mathematics education, with this second edition including new discussions and chapters on: Classic and contemporary issues of pedagogy, politics, philosophy and sociology of mathematics education International comparisons of achievement Digital technologies for teaching Mastery in mathematics Pop culture and mathematics Whether mathematics can be harmfulDesigned to stimulate discussion and support you in your own research, writing and practice through suggested questions and activities throughout, Debates in Mathematics Education will be a valuable resource for any student or practising teacher, and those engaged in initial teacher education, continuing professional development or Master's level study. This book also has much to offer to those leading mathematics departments in schools and initial teacher education programmes, and to beginning doctoral students looking for a survey of the field of mathematics education research.

Debates in Art and Design Education encourages student and practising teachers to engage with contemporary issues and developments in learning and teaching. This fully updated second edition introduces key issues, concepts and tensions in order to help art educators develop a critical approach to their practice in response to the changing fields of education and visual culture. Accessible, comprehensive chapters are designed to stimulate thinking and understanding in relation to theory and practice, and help art educators to make informed judgements by arguing from a position based on theoretical knowledge and understanding. Contributing artists, lecturers and teachers debate a wide range of issues including: the latest policy and initiatives in secondary art education the concepts, skills and dispositions that can be developed through art education tensions inherent in developing the inclusive Art and Design classroom citizenship education within Art and Design teaching new practices in community arts education examining ‘whiteness’ in the sectorDebates in Art and Design Education is for all student and practising teachers interested in furthering their understanding of an exciting, ever-changing field, and supports art educators in articulating how the subject is a vital, engaging and necessary part of the twenty-first century curriculum.

Debates in Art and Design Education encourages student and practising teachers to engage with contemporary issues and developments in learning and teaching. This fully updated second edition introduces key issues, concepts and tensions in order to help art educators develop a critical approach to their practice in response to the changing fields of education and visual culture. Accessible, comprehensive chapters are designed to stimulate thinking and understanding in relation to theory and practice, and help art educators to make informed judgements by arguing from a position based on theoretical knowledge and understanding. Contributing artists, lecturers and teachers debate a wide range of issues including: the latest policy and initiatives in secondary art education the concepts, skills and dispositions that can be developed through art education tensions inherent in developing the inclusive Art and Design classroom citizenship education within Art and Design teaching new practices in community arts education examining ‘whiteness’ in the sectorDebates in Art and Design Education is for all student and practising teachers interested in furthering their understanding of an exciting, ever-changing field, and supports art educators in articulating how the subject is a vital, engaging and necessary part of the twenty-first century curriculum.

Debates in Second Language Education provides an up-to-date account of the key debates and areas of controversy in the field of second language learning and teaching. Adopting a broad and comparative perspective and emphasising the importance of considering a variety of learning contexts, it encourages students and practising teachers to engage with contemporary issues and developments in learning and teaching.Chapters are designed to stimulate thinking and understanding in relation to theory and practice, and help language educators to make informed judgements by arguing from a position based on theoretical knowledge and understanding. Bringing together leading contributors in the field, the book discusses a wide range of issues relating to second language learning and teaching including: the relationship between age and success in language learning aptitude versus motivation as predictors of successful language learning linguistic diversity and plurilingualism the teaching of grammar and vocabulary the value of phonics learning pronunciation the second language only versus the multilingual debateWith reflective points in every chapter, Debates in Second Language Education will be a valuable resource for any student or practising teacher, as well as for those engaged in initial teacher education, continuing professional development or Master's level study. It will also be of interest to second language acquisition researchers and those studying applied linguistics.

Debates in Second Language Education provides an up-to-date account of the key debates and areas of controversy in the field of second language learning and teaching. Adopting a broad and comparative perspective and emphasising the importance of considering a variety of learning contexts, it encourages students and practising teachers to engage with contemporary issues and developments in learning and teaching.Chapters are designed to stimulate thinking and understanding in relation to theory and practice, and help language educators to make informed judgements by arguing from a position based on theoretical knowledge and understanding. Bringing together leading contributors in the field, the book discusses a wide range of issues relating to second language learning and teaching including: the relationship between age and success in language learning aptitude versus motivation as predictors of successful language learning linguistic diversity and plurilingualism the teaching of grammar and vocabulary the value of phonics learning pronunciation the second language only versus the multilingual debateWith reflective points in every chapter, Debates in Second Language Education will be a valuable resource for any student or practising teacher, as well as for those engaged in initial teacher education, continuing professional development or Master's level study. It will also be of interest to second language acquisition researchers and those studying applied linguistics.

This powerful text encourages both pre-service and established teachers, as well as teacher educators, to engage with contemporary debates in primary education. Promoting a critical approach, the chapters explore a wide range of key themes including the importance of values in primary education and the imperative for a curriculum which embraces the whole range of available subjects. At the same time, the chapters are underpinned by a belief that children should be at the heart of all the decisions we make and that primary education should inspire a love of learning, for life.The book aims to support practitioners to make informed judgements and feel confident to argue their point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding, thus increasing teacher agency and confidence in responding to complex educational and social dilemmas such as literacy levels and rising mental health concerns. Chapters encompass both the macro aspects of primary education and more specialised debates on key topics such as reading, mathematics, languages, early years education and the use of technology.With annotated further reading and reflective questions, this key text is essential reading for all those wanting to develop a better understanding of the issues that shape their practice including student teachers at both undergraduate and postgraduate level, practising teachers engaged in continuing professional development and teacher educators.

This powerful text encourages both pre-service and established teachers, as well as teacher educators, to engage with contemporary debates in primary education. Promoting a critical approach, the chapters explore a wide range of key themes including the importance of values in primary education and the imperative for a curriculum which embraces the whole range of available subjects. At the same time, the chapters are underpinned by a belief that children should be at the heart of all the decisions we make and that primary education should inspire a love of learning, for life.The book aims to support practitioners to make informed judgements and feel confident to argue their point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding, thus increasing teacher agency and confidence in responding to complex educational and social dilemmas such as literacy levels and rising mental health concerns. Chapters encompass both the macro aspects of primary education and more specialised debates on key topics such as reading, mathematics, languages, early years education and the use of technology.With annotated further reading and reflective questions, this key text is essential reading for all those wanting to develop a better understanding of the issues that shape their practice including student teachers at both undergraduate and postgraduate level, practising teachers engaged in continuing professional development and teacher educators.

This fully revised second edition of Debates in Science Education explores the major issues that science teachers encounter in teaching their subject, encouraging the reader to make their own informed judgements and argue their point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding.Brand new chapters written by a team of international experts provide fresh insight into topics of central importance when teaching science. Written to aid and inspire beginning teachers, current teachers and established subject leaders, these focused chapters are essential to anyone wishing to deepen their understanding of salient issues within school science education, including:STEAM educationsustainability and climate changescience and sensitive issuesequity and diversityscience and sex educationscience and religionscience and pedagogy (including science inquiry)transition from primary to secondary schoolEncouraging critical reflection and aiming to stimulate both novice and experienced teachers, this book is a valuable resource for any student or practicing teacher and particularly those engaged in continuing professional development or Master’s level study.

This fully revised second edition of Debates in Science Education explores the major issues that science teachers encounter in teaching their subject, encouraging the reader to make their own informed judgements and argue their point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding.Brand new chapters written by a team of international experts provide fresh insight into topics of central importance when teaching science. Written to aid and inspire beginning teachers, current teachers and established subject leaders, these focused chapters are essential to anyone wishing to deepen their understanding of salient issues within school science education, including:STEAM educationsustainability and climate changescience and sensitive issuesequity and diversityscience and sex educationscience and religionscience and pedagogy (including science inquiry)transition from primary to secondary schoolEncouraging critical reflection and aiming to stimulate both novice and experienced teachers, this book is a valuable resource for any student or practicing teacher and particularly those engaged in continuing professional development or Master’s level study.

Design and technology is a relatively new subject compared to more traditional subjects, and during its brief existence, it has garnered widespread debate in schools. This book aims to explore some of these debates and challenges the reader with new perspectives about the subject by presenting and questioning arguments about the purpose, content and place of design and technology in the school curriculum. It will encourage the reader to critically reflect on their own beliefs and practices to reach informed judgements and perspectives that will affect how they teach and think about design and technology.Exploring the major issues that design and technology teachers encounter in their professional lives as well as introducing new topics they may never have considered before, this comprehensive second edition has been fully updated with 16 chapters focusing on emerging and enduring debates:How do we do race in design and technology?What’s so special about design and technology anyway?What is design cognition in design and technology classrooms?What is the potential of feedback in the creative processes of a design and technology classroom?Does food fit in design and technology?What is the role of making in design and technology?With its combination of expert opinion and fresh insight, Debates in Design and Technology Education is the ideal companion for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial training, continuing professional development or master’s-level study.

Design and technology is a relatively new subject compared to more traditional subjects, and during its brief existence, it has garnered widespread debate in schools. This book aims to explore some of these debates and challenges the reader with new perspectives about the subject by presenting and questioning arguments about the purpose, content and place of design and technology in the school curriculum. It will encourage the reader to critically reflect on their own beliefs and practices to reach informed judgements and perspectives that will affect how they teach and think about design and technology.Exploring the major issues that design and technology teachers encounter in their professional lives as well as introducing new topics they may never have considered before, this comprehensive second edition has been fully updated with 16 chapters focusing on emerging and enduring debates:How do we do race in design and technology?What’s so special about design and technology anyway?What is design cognition in design and technology classrooms?What is the potential of feedback in the creative processes of a design and technology classroom?Does food fit in design and technology?What is the role of making in design and technology?With its combination of expert opinion and fresh insight, Debates in Design and Technology Education is the ideal companion for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial training, continuing professional development or master’s-level study.

What are the key debates in Religious Education teaching today? Debates in Religious Education explores the major issues all RE teachers encounter in their daily professional lives. It encourages critical reflection and aims to stimulate both novice and experienced teachers to think more deeply about their practice, and link research and evidence to what they have observed in schools. This accessible book tackles established and contemporary issues enabling you to reach informed judgements and argue your point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding. Taking account of recent controversy, and challenging assumptions about the place of religion in education, expert contributors cover key topics such as: Effective pedagogy in RE teaching Exploring thinking skills and truth claims The relationship of science and religion in the classroom The place of school worship in contemporary society The role of RE in spiritual and moral development Diversity in the RE classroom. With its combination of expert opinion and fresh insight, Debates in Religious Education is the ideal companion for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial training, continuing professional development and Masters level study.

What are the key debates in Religious Education teaching today? Debates in Religious Education explores the major issues all RE teachers encounter in their daily professional lives. It encourages critical reflection and aims to stimulate both novice and experienced teachers to think more deeply about their practice, and link research and evidence to what they have observed in schools. This accessible book tackles established and contemporary issues enabling you to reach informed judgements and argue your point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding. Taking account of recent controversy, and challenging assumptions about the place of religion in education, expert contributors cover key topics such as: Effective pedagogy in RE teaching Exploring thinking skills and truth claims The relationship of science and religion in the classroom The place of school worship in contemporary society The role of RE in spiritual and moral development Diversity in the RE classroom. With its combination of expert opinion and fresh insight, Debates in Religious Education is the ideal companion for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial training, continuing professional development and Masters level study.

Debates in Music Teaching encourages student and practising teachers to engage with contemporary issues and developments in music education. It aims to introduce a critical approach to the central concepts and practices that have influenced major interventions and initiatives in music teaching, and supports the development of new ways of looking at ideas around teaching and learning in music. Accessible and comprehensive chapters will stimulate thinking and creativity in relation to theory and practice, and will facilitate readers in reaching their own informed judgements and rationalising their position with deep theoretical knowledge and understanding. Throughout the book, international experts in the field consider key issues including: the justification for music in the school curriculum partnerships in music education and the identity of the music teacher technology and conceptions of musicianship social justice and music education the place of diverse musical genres and traditions in the music curriculum critical thinking and music education autonomy and integrity for music in cross-curricular work the politics, sociology and philosophy of music education. Debates in Music Teaching is for all student and practising teachers interested in furthering their understanding of the subject. Including carefully annotated further reading and reflective questions to help shape research and writing, this collection stimulates critical and creative thinking in relation to contemporary debates within music education.

Debates in Music Teaching encourages student and practising teachers to engage with contemporary issues and developments in music education. It aims to introduce a critical approach to the central concepts and practices that have influenced major interventions and initiatives in music teaching, and supports the development of new ways of looking at ideas around teaching and learning in music. Accessible and comprehensive chapters will stimulate thinking and creativity in relation to theory and practice, and will facilitate readers in reaching their own informed judgements and rationalising their position with deep theoretical knowledge and understanding. Throughout the book, international experts in the field consider key issues including: the justification for music in the school curriculum partnerships in music education and the identity of the music teacher technology and conceptions of musicianship social justice and music education the place of diverse musical genres and traditions in the music curriculum critical thinking and music education autonomy and integrity for music in cross-curricular work the politics, sociology and philosophy of music education. Debates in Music Teaching is for all student and practising teachers interested in furthering their understanding of the subject. Including carefully annotated further reading and reflective questions to help shape research and writing, this collection stimulates critical and creative thinking in relation to contemporary debates within music education.

What are the key issues in Citizenship Education today?Debates in Citizenship Education encourages student and practising teachers to engage with and reflect on some of the key topics, concepts and debates that they will have to address throughout their career. It places the specialist field of Citizenship Education in a wider context and aims to enable teachers to reach their own informed judgements and argue their points of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding.Taking account of recent policy and controversies, expert contributors provide a balance of experience and perspectives and cover a wide range of classic and contemporary topics including: Theoretical Perspectives on Citizenship Education; International Comparative Perspectives on Citizenship Education; Citizenship Education, Race and Community Cohesion; Climate Change and Sustainable Citizenship Education; ICT and Citizenship Education; Ethics and Citizenship Education; Assessment of Citizenship Education.Debates in Citizenship Education is for all student teachers, and practising teachers engaged in CPD or interested in furthering their understanding of teaching in the subject area. Including carefully annotated further reading and reflective questions to help shape your own research and writing, this collection provides an introduction to recent critical thinking and contemporary debates within Citizenship Education.

What are the key issues in Citizenship Education today?Debates in Citizenship Education encourages student and practising teachers to engage with and reflect on some of the key topics, concepts and debates that they will have to address throughout their career. It places the specialist field of Citizenship Education in a wider context and aims to enable teachers to reach their own informed judgements and argue their points of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding.Taking account of recent policy and controversies, expert contributors provide a balance of experience and perspectives and cover a wide range of classic and contemporary topics including: Theoretical Perspectives on Citizenship Education; International Comparative Perspectives on Citizenship Education; Citizenship Education, Race and Community Cohesion; Climate Change and Sustainable Citizenship Education; ICT and Citizenship Education; Ethics and Citizenship Education; Assessment of Citizenship Education.Debates in Citizenship Education is for all student teachers, and practising teachers engaged in CPD or interested in furthering their understanding of teaching in the subject area. Including carefully annotated further reading and reflective questions to help shape your own research and writing, this collection provides an introduction to recent critical thinking and contemporary debates within Citizenship Education.

Debates in Modern Languages Education offers a comprehensive introduction and synthesis of the major themes and research evidence in language learning and teaching today, providing an up-to-date, authoritative review of traditional and contemporary issues in language teaching. With chapters by leading experts in the field, thematic sections explore and consider:the importance of a wide range of different knowledge bases and skills for effective teachinghow to become expert practitionersapproaches to teaching with reference to relevant theories, complex constructs, and empirical researchthe innovations and ideas that shape and will shape the discipline for the next decade. Each thought-provoking chapter is supported by reference to further reading and additional material to encourage deeper exploration which will help the reader to fully engage in the debates presented. This book is a valuable resource for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial teacher education, continuing professional development and Masters level study.

Debates in Modern Languages Education offers a comprehensive introduction and synthesis of the major themes and research evidence in language learning and teaching today, providing an up-to-date, authoritative review of traditional and contemporary issues in language teaching. With chapters by leading experts in the field, thematic sections explore and consider:the importance of a wide range of different knowledge bases and skills for effective teachinghow to become expert practitionersapproaches to teaching with reference to relevant theories, complex constructs, and empirical researchthe innovations and ideas that shape and will shape the discipline for the next decade. Each thought-provoking chapter is supported by reference to further reading and additional material to encourage deeper exploration which will help the reader to fully engage in the debates presented. This book is a valuable resource for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial teacher education, continuing professional development and Masters level study.

This essential book provides a comprehensive introduction to current debates in religious education. Exploring the rich variety of opinions and ideas that constitute and impact upon religious education, both novice and experienced teachers will benefit from deepening their theoretical knowledge and understanding through reading Debates in Religious Education. This second edition has fully updated all chapters and included an additional thirteen new contributions, providing a provocative yet informative introduction to current debates and allowing teachers to reach informed decisions about how they approach this subject.Responding to recent controversy and challenging assumptions about the place of religion in education, expert contributors cover key topics such as: The aims of religious education Religious education in the United Kingdom and Ireland Agreed syllabuses and the role of Standing Advisory Councils Educational issues, such as the right of withdrawal, collective worship, and faith schools Teaching and learning in religious education Multi-faith religious education Relating science and religion.With its combination of expert opinion and fresh insight, this essential text is the ideal companion for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial training, continuing professional development or Master's-level study.

This essential book provides a comprehensive introduction to current debates in religious education. Exploring the rich variety of opinions and ideas that constitute and impact upon religious education, both novice and experienced teachers will benefit from deepening their theoretical knowledge and understanding through reading Debates in Religious Education. This second edition has fully updated all chapters and included an additional thirteen new contributions, providing a provocative yet informative introduction to current debates and allowing teachers to reach informed decisions about how they approach this subject.Responding to recent controversy and challenging assumptions about the place of religion in education, expert contributors cover key topics such as: The aims of religious education Religious education in the United Kingdom and Ireland Agreed syllabuses and the role of Standing Advisory Councils Educational issues, such as the right of withdrawal, collective worship, and faith schools Teaching and learning in religious education Multi-faith religious education Relating science and religion.With its combination of expert opinion and fresh insight, this essential text is the ideal companion for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial training, continuing professional development or Master's-level study.

Debates in Music Teaching encourages both graduate and postgraduate students and practising teachers to engage with contemporary issues and developments in music education. It introduces a critical approach to the central concepts and practices that have influenced major interventions and initiatives in music teaching and supports the development of new ways of looking at ideas around teaching and learning in music.Bringing together leading international experts, the chapters consider key issues in music education alongside reflective questions to help shape research and writing. This second edition has been fully updated to reflect the latest debates in the field including:the justification for music in the school curriculummusic education and cognitive psychologythe nature of musical knowledgeaddressing decolonisationpartnerships in music educationthe nature of musical developmentsocial justice and music educationthe place of diverse musical genres and traditions in the music curriculumpedagogies of composingenvironmentally sustainable practices for teaching music with technologythe professional journeys and identity of music teachersWritten to help readers to form their own personal philosophy of music education and stimulate critical and creative thinking, Debates in Music Teaching is essential reading for all student and practising music teachers.

Debates in Music Teaching encourages both graduate and postgraduate students and practising teachers to engage with contemporary issues and developments in music education. It introduces a critical approach to the central concepts and practices that have influenced major interventions and initiatives in music teaching and supports the development of new ways of looking at ideas around teaching and learning in music.Bringing together leading international experts, the chapters consider key issues in music education alongside reflective questions to help shape research and writing. This second edition has been fully updated to reflect the latest debates in the field including:the justification for music in the school curriculummusic education and cognitive psychologythe nature of musical knowledgeaddressing decolonisationpartnerships in music educationthe nature of musical developmentsocial justice and music educationthe place of diverse musical genres and traditions in the music curriculumpedagogies of composingenvironmentally sustainable practices for teaching music with technologythe professional journeys and identity of music teachersWritten to help readers to form their own personal philosophy of music education and stimulate critical and creative thinking, Debates in Music Teaching is essential reading for all student and practising music teachers.

Now in its second edition, Debates in History Teaching remains at the cutting edge of history education. It has been fully updated to take into account the latest developments in policy, research and professional practice. With further exploration into the major issues that history teachers encounter in their daily professional lives, it provides fresh guidance for thinking and practice for teachers within the UK and beyond.Written by a range of experts in history education, chapters cover all the key issues needed for clear thinking and excellent professional action. This book will enable you to reach informed judgements and argue your point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding. Debates include: What is happening today in history education? What is the purpose of history teaching? What do history teachers need to know? What are the key trends and issues in international contexts? What is the role of evidence in history teaching and learning? How should you make use of ICT in your lessons? Should moral learning be an aim of history education? How should history learning be assessed?Debates in History Teaching remains essential reading for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial training, continuing professional development or Master's-level study.

Now in its second edition, Debates in History Teaching remains at the cutting edge of history education. It has been fully updated to take into account the latest developments in policy, research and professional practice. With further exploration into the major issues that history teachers encounter in their daily professional lives, it provides fresh guidance for thinking and practice for teachers within the UK and beyond.Written by a range of experts in history education, chapters cover all the key issues needed for clear thinking and excellent professional action. This book will enable you to reach informed judgements and argue your point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding. Debates include: What is happening today in history education? What is the purpose of history teaching? What do history teachers need to know? What are the key trends and issues in international contexts? What is the role of evidence in history teaching and learning? How should you make use of ICT in your lessons? Should moral learning be an aim of history education? How should history learning be assessed?Debates in History Teaching remains essential reading for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial training, continuing professional development or Master's-level study.

This new and updated second edition of Debates in Physical Education explores issues physical education teachers encounter in their daily lives. By engaging with both established and contemporary debates, this volume challenges readers to think about and reflect on the relative validity of positions presented in order to develop their own reasoned and personal view in relation to the topics explored. Divided into four accessible sections, this book investigates and offers fresh insight into topics of central importance in physical education. Chapters include, for example: Physical education as a means or as an end in itself;Knowledge for physical education;The physical education curriculum;Assessment in physical education; Technology, pedagogy and physical education.Physical education beyond schools and teachers.Designed to stimulate discussion and support readers in their own research, writing and practice, Debates in Physical Education will be a valuable resource for any student or practising teacher engaged in initial teacher education, continuing professional development or Master's level study.

Debates in English Teaching explores the major issues all English teachers encounter daily in their professional lives. Written by leading experts in the field, the chapters bring together theoretical knowledge and contemporary perspectives to offer fresh insight into the most salient debates in the field of English teaching.The book supports critical reflection and will help both novice and experienced teachers to reach informed judgements and argue their point of view with deeper theoretical knowledge and understanding. This second edition has been fully updated throughout and features four new chapters. Key debates covered include: Literacy and social class English and difference Digital literacy English and mental wellbeing Reading for pleasure The literary canon The importance of the media and new technologiesWith its combination of expert opinion and fresh insight, Debates in English Teaching is an ideal companion for all student and practising teachers engaged in initial training, continuing professional development and master’s level study.