Introducing Geographic Information Systems with ArcGIS

MICHAEL KENNEDY, AICP, is an Associate Professor Emeritus of Geography at the University of Kentucky. He is the author of The Global Positioning System and ArcGIS, Third Edition, as well as books on Fortran, Pascal, and PL/One. He has presented papers on GIS analysis quality control at Esri User Conferences and is a member of the American Institute of Certified Planners, the Association of American Geographers, and the American Planning Association.

• Foreword xxviiPreface to Third Edition xxixPreface to First Edition xxxvIntroduction xliiiPART I Basic Concepts of GIS 1CHAPTER 1 Some Concepts That Underpin GIS 3You Ask: “What Is GIS About?” 3And So You Ask Again: “What Is GIS About?” 4EXERCISE 1-1 (PROJECT)Finding a Geographic Site by Manual Means 5More of What GIS Is About 10Next Steps: Seemingly Independent Things You Need To Know 11Determining Where Something Is: Coordinate Systems 12Determining Where Something Is: Latitude and Longitude 14Geodesy, Coordinate Systems, Geographic Projections, and Scale 15Projected Coordinate Systems 15Geographic vs. Projected Coordinates: A Comparison 17Two Projected Coordinate Systems: UTM and State Plane 17Physical Dimensionality 20Global Positioning Systems 22Remote Sensing 22Relational Databases 23Searching (and Indexing) in General 29Another Definition of GIS 30Computer Software: In General 32STEP-BY-STEP 35EXERCISE 1-2 (PROJECT)Developing a Fast Facts File for the Information You Learn 35Understanding the File Structure for the Exercises 36EXERCISE 1-3 (MINOR PROJECT)Getting Set Up with ArcGIS 37EXERCISE 1-4 (PROJECT)Looking at the ArcCatalog Program 38Anatomy of the ArcCatalog Window 39Setting Some Options 40The Catalog Tree 42Connecting to a Folder 44The Toolbars and the Status Bar 45An Optional Step 49Exploring Basic GIS Data Storage Models 50EXERCISE 1-5 (MAJOR PROJECT)Exploring Data with ArcCatalog—Fire Hydrants in a Village 51Copying Data over to Your Personal Folder 51Examining the Table 54Deriving Information from the Table 55Sorting the Records 55Finding Values in a Table 56Identifying Geographic Features and Coordinates 57Looking at GeoGraphics 58A First Look at Metadata 59Using ArcCatalog to Place Data in ArcMap 61EXERCISE 1-6 (PROJECT)A Look at Some Spatial Data for Finding a Site for the Wildcat Boat Facility 63Using the Area on the Disk for Your Own Work 64Copying Data over to Your Personal IGIS Folder 64Searching for GIS Data 65Exploring Soils 70But Something Is Missing 71Is the Newly Found Data Applicable? 73Making a Personal Geodatabase Feature Class from a Coverage 74Looking at the Landcover Personal Geodatabase Feature Class 75Further Examining the Wildcat Boat Facility Area Data Sets 76EXERCISE 1-7 (PROJECT)Looking at Wildcat Boat Data with ArcMap 79Seeing the Results of the Join 82EXERCISE 1-8 (PROJECT)Understanding the ArcGIS Help System 82A Button for Instant Help: What’s This? (for ArcGIS Desktop version 10.0 only) 82Getting Instant Help for a Tool or Command (for ArcGIS Desktop version 10.1) 83The Help System and Documentation 83ArcGIS Help across the Internet 84EXERCISE 1-9 (DULL STUFF)Using ArcCatalog for Mundane Operations 85EXERCISE 1-10 (REVIEW)Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File 86What’s Next? 88CHAPTER 2 Characteristics and Examples of Spatial Data 89The Original Form of Spatial Data: Maps 89Moving Spatial Data from Maps to Computers: Forces for Change 90Spatial Data 94Limiting the Scope 95Spatial Data for Decision Making 95Sets of Spatial Data: The Database 95Spatial Databases: Inherent Diffi culties 96Information Systems 101Uses for a Geographic Information System 103STEP-BY-STEP 113EXERCISE 2-1 (MOSTLY OUTSIDE)Appreciating Geographic Space and Spatial Data 113EXERCISE 2-2 (SETUP)ArcMap Toolbar Examination and Review 114EXERCISE 2-3 (MAJOR PROJECT)Exploring Different Types of Geographic Data 117The Basic Difference between ArcCatalog and ArcMap 117Exploring Data from the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) 117Preliminaries 118Seeing the GPS File in ArcMap 118Looking at the GPS Track in the Context of a Variety of GIS Data 122A Potpourri of Types of Geographic Data 122Displaying Layers from Vector-Based Datasets 125Housekeeping: Saving and Restoring a Map 127Selecting: Both Map Data and Attribute Data 128Using the Measure Tool and the Identify Tool 131County Boundaries and Polygons 131TIGER/Line Files 133The Table of Contents: Display vs. Source vs. Selection 134EXERCISE 2-4 (MAJOR PROJECT)A Look at Raster Data 136Digital Raster Graphics and Cell-Based Files 136A Look (Optional) at How DRG Color Values Are Put Together 140Experimenting with Different Ways of Seeing Data 141Digital Orthophotos 143More TIGER/Line Files 145Another Tie between Attributes and Geographics 148More Housekeeping: Shutting Down and Restarting ArcMap 149Digital Elevation Model Files 149Comparing the DEM and the DRG 153Contour Line Files 153EXERCISE 2-5 (PROJECT)Triangulated Irregular Networks 155TINs are Three-Dimensional Datasets 158Elevation Based on Massive Sets of Data: The Esri Terrain 160EXERCISE 2-6 (PROJECT)Geodatasets of Soils, Rocks, and Land Cover 161The Summarizing Procedure 162Some Geological Data 164Rasters of Land Cover Data 165You Are Not Alone (Assuming you have an Internet connection) 167Next Steps on Your Own 168EXERCISE 2-7 (REVIEW)Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File 168The Next Chapter 171CHAPTER 3 Products of a GIS: Maps and Other Information 173GIS and Cartography—Compatibility? 173Products of a Geographic Information System 174Overall Requirements for Utility 174Classification of GIS Products 175Documenting Products 177Thoughts on Different Types of Products 178Don’t Ignore Character-Based Information 178Don’t Hesitate to Sort Information 178Consider Hard Copy 179Consider Balance in Product Content 179Elements of Product Design 179Units, Projection, and Scale 180Thoughts on Resolution and Scale 180Making Sure There Is a Base Map 180Measure of Quality Assurance 181The Decision Maker–Product Interface 181In Summary 182STEP-BY-STEP 183The Data View and the Layout View 183EXERCISE 3-1 (WARM-UP)Templates 184EXERCISE 3-2 (PROJECT)Templates That Contain Data 186Controlling Your View of the Map: Zooming 188Understanding the Panning and Other Controls 189Adding Other Map Elements 190EXERCISE 3-3 (MAJOR PROJECT)Data Frames 192Adding Data to Data Frames 193A Summary of the Graphic Indicators 195Tinkering with the Map—Scale Bars 195Legends 196EXERCISE 3-4 (MINI PROJECT)Looking at the Plethora of Mapmaking Tools and Options 198EXERCISE 3-5 (MAJOR PROJECT)Making a Map of the Wildcat Boat Datasets 201EXERCISE 3-6 (MAJOR PROJECT)Publishing Maps on the Internet 201EXERCISE 3-7 (MAJOR PROJECT)Enhancing Communication: Styles, Layer Files, Layer Packages, Reports, Charts, and Graphics 206Layer Files 206Layer Packages 209Styles 210Adding and Using a Style 211Reports 212Charts and Graphs 216Graphics 218Making Graphics out of Geographic Features 223EXERCISE 3-8Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File 224CHAPTER 4 Structures for Storing Geographic Data 227Why Is Spatial Data Analysis So Hard? 227How the Computer Aids Analyzing Spatial Data 228Complexity of Spatial Data 228Structures for Spatial Data 229Storage Paradigms for Areal Data 230Fundamental Bases of Geographic Data Models 230The Raster Data Model 232Vector Data Model 234A Multiplicity of “Storadigms” 235Vector-Based Geographic Datasets—Logical Construction 235Zero-Dimensional Entities in a Two-Dimensional Field: Points 236One-Dimensional Entities in a Two-Dimensional Field: Lines 237Two-Dimensional Entities in a Two-Dimensional Field: Polygons 238Three-Dimensional Entities in a Three-Dimensional Field: Triangles and Multipatches 239Specific Esri Spatial Vector Data Storage Mechanisms 240The Geodatabase Data Structure 240Geodatabase Software 240Polygons within Polygons—Perimeter and Area Calculations 241Geodatabases—Layout in the Computer 243Geodatabases—Logical Construction 243Geodatabases—Feature Shape 244Nested Polygons in Geodatabases 245Geodatabases and Attributes 245Objects—First Acquaintance 247The Shapefile Data Structure 247Shapefiles—Layout in the Computer 248Summarizing Vector Dataset Features 249Summary of Logical Structures of Vector-Based GIS Datasets 249Raster-Based Geographic Data Sets—Logical Construction 250Raster-Based Geographic Data Sets—Layout in the Computer 251TINs 253TIN-Based Geographic Data Sets—Layout in the Computer 254Spatial Reference 255STEP-BY-STEP 257EXERCISE 4-1 (WARM-UP)Meet ArcToolbox 257EXERCISE 4-2 (WARM-UP)A Look at Some Trivial Personal Geodatabase Feature Classes 259More Help 260EXERCISE 4-3 (MINOR PROJECT)Adding Tools and Toolboxes to your Toolset 262EXERCISE 4-4 (MINOR PROJECT)Making a Personal Geodatabase Feature Class Named TextToFeature 263Specifi cation of your Input Text File for the “Create Features from Text File” Tool 263Labeling Features 266Making Polygons from Lines 268Areas and Perimeters Examined 269Labeling Features with Selected Attributes 269EXERCISE 4-5 (QUICK QUIZ)Areas and Perimeters 270EXERCISE 4-6 (PROJECT)Making a File Geodatabase Feature Class for Foozit_Court 271EXERCISE 4-7 (EXPLORATION)Understanding Some Things That Don’t Look Right 272Computers and Inexact Computation 274EXERCISE 4-8 (PROJECT)Geodatabase Topology 276Creating a New Topology 277Specifying Which Feature Moves When Features Are Adjusted: Rank 277Topology Rules 278Validating Topology 279A Warning: Changes Made through Topology Are Permanent 281EXERCISE 4-9 (REVIEW)Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File 281CHAPTER 5 Geographic and Attribute Data: Selection, Input, and Editing 283Concerns about Finding and Collecting Data 283Looking for Data on the Internet 284Steps in Developing the Database 284GPS and GIS 289Anatomy of the Acronym: GPS 291What Time Is It? 294STEP-BY-STEP 295EXERCISE 5-1 (WARM-UP)Looking at Areal Representations of the Real World 295Looking at Reference Systems 296Looking at Coordinate Systems 298Using the Reference System to Discover the Boundary Coordinates of a State Plane Zone 299Primary Lesson 301EXERCISE 5-2 (PROJECT)Look at Geographic Data on the web 301EXERCISE 5-3 (PROJECT)Digitizing and Transforming 302A Plan for Digitizing and Transforming 302Getting Started 303Loading an Image File as a Layer in ArcMap 303Loading the New, Blank Shapefi le into ArcMap 305Adding Line Features to a Shapefi le by Using the Editing Facility in ArcMap 305Converting a Shapefi le to a Geodatabse Feature Class and Giving It Real-World Coordinates 309Converting the Shapefi le to a Geodatabase Feature Class 310Moving the Foozit Court Feature Class into the Real World 310EXERCISE 5-4 (PROJECT)Digitizing Directly into a Real-World Coordinate System in a Geodatabase 314Preliminaries 314Making the Feature Class That Will Be the Object of the Digitization 315Georeferencing 315Moving the Sketch to UTM Zone 2 317Digitizing the Line Boundaries of the Islands 318Making Polygons of the Digitized Lines 318Making Multipart Polygons 319Five islands divided by county and agency 319Merging Multipart Polygons 320EXERCISE 5-5 (WARM-UP)Digitizing Geodatabase Polygons and Exploring Topology 321Making Copies of the Feature Class 322Using “Clip” to Remove Overlaps from the Feature Class 323Using Topology to Remove Overlaps from the Feature Class 324EXERCISE 5-6 (PROJECT)Learning Some Editor Fundamentals 326The Concept of the Edit Sketch 326Making Sketches with Snapping 326Experimenting with Editing Polygons 329Experimenting with Editor’s Union 329Experimenting with the Editor’s Intersect 330Experimenting with the Editor’s Buffer Capabilities 330Using Undo, Redo, Copy, and Cut 330Working with Line Editing Again 331EXERCISE 5-7 (FOLLOW-ON)Adding the Sixth Island 331Creating a 3-D Feature 333EXERCISE 5-8 (PROJECT)Obtaining Field Data and Joining Tables 335Organization 336Environment and Measurement (Spatial Data) 336Measurements (Non-spatial Data) 337Recording Data 337Team Assignments 337Undertaking the Data Entry Process 338Making a Table That Contains the Coordinate Data 338Making a Table That Contains the Student Data 339Populating the Student_Info Table with Data 340Joining the Two Tables to Make a Single Table 340Seeing the Results of the Join 340EXERCISE 5-9 (REVIEW)Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File 342PART II Spatial Analysis and Synthesis with GIS 345CHAPTER 6 Analysis of GIS Data by Simple Examination 347Information 347Computer Hardware—What a Computer Does 349Continuous and Discrete Phenomena 352Some Implications of Discrete Representation for GIS 355Scientific Notation, Numerical Significance, Accuracy, and Precision 356Precision vs. Accuracy 356Basic Statistics 359Putting Values into Classes 361Measurement Scales 361STEP-BY-STEP 363EXERCISE 6-1 (PROJECT)Reviewing and Learning More of ArcMap 363Examining the Toolbars 364Pointing at Records 365Two Windows Are Available for Selecting 365Selecting Records (and, Thereby, Features) 366Looking at the Other Capabilities of the Options Menu 368Selecting Features (and, Thereby, Records) 368Quick Selection of Features 368Selecting by Location 369Reviewing and Understanding Actions on the Table of Contents 370Layers and the Data Frames 370Changing Layer Properties 371EXERCISE 6-2 (PROJECT)Categorization and Symbolization 375Thinking about Maps Again 375Classification (or Categorization) and Symbolization 375User Selection of Classes 377A More Careful Look at Equal Intervals 379Defined Interval 379Quantiles 379Standard Deviation 379Natural Breaks 380Normalization 381Using Charts and Graphs 381Making a Layout 382EXERCISE 6-3 (SHORT PROJECT)Comparing Data Sets: Medically Underserved Areas (MUAs) and Health Professional Shortage Areas (HPSAs) 382EXERCISE 6-4 (MAJOR PROJECT)Combining Demographic and Geographic Data 386Obtaining Data from the U.S. Bureau of the Census 387Converting the Census Data Spreadsheet to dBASEIV Format 388Using TIGER-Based Street and BlockShapefiles from Esri 390Assessing What We Have and What We Need to Solve the Problem 394Converting the Relevant Files to Cartesian Coordinates 395Finally 395EXERCISE 6-5Determining Proximity of Points to Lines and Other Points 397EXERCISE 6-6 (REVIEW)Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File 399CHAPTER 7 Creating Spatial Feature Classes Based on Proximity, Overlay, and Attributes 403Generating Features Based on Proximity: Buffering 403Generating Features by Overlaying 405Overlaying with Line and Point Feature Classes 407Spatial Joins in General 409Deriving Feature Classes by Selecting Attributes: Extraction 410STEP-BY-STEP 413EXERCISE 7-1 (WARM-UP)Making Trivial Buffers around a Trivial Feature Class 413EXERCISE 7-2 (PROJECT)Exploring FEATURE CLASS Buffers with the Wildcat Boat Data 415Using ArcToolbox to Make Buffer Zones around the Roads 416Variable-Width Buffers 417EXERCISE 7-3 (PROJECT)Manipulate Polygon Feature Classes with Union and Extract 419Make a New Feature Class from a Subset of Polygons: Extract 423More Complex Queries—And’s and Or’s 425Other Polygon Spatial Joins: Intersect and Identity 425EXERCISE 7-4 (PROJECT)Use Overlay and Extract with Trivial Point and Line Feature Classes 426EXERCISE 7-5 (PROJECT) 429Using Buffer and Overlay Together with Geodatabases 429The Getrich Saga 429Deriving Information by Combining Tables 431Overlaying the Feature Classes 433EXERCISE 7-6 (PROJECT)Building a Model of the Getrich Project Solution 435Create a Python Script from the Gold Model 439Modify the Python Script from the Gold Model 440Execute the Python Script 440EXERCISE 7-7 (MINOR PROJECT)Making Buffers for Solving the Wildcat Boat Problem 441EXERCISE 7-8 (PROJECT)Finding a Site for the Wildcat Boat Facility 442EXERCISE 7-9 (PROJECT, OPTIONAL)Solving a Revised Wildcat Boat Problem 446Understanding Dissolve 446Making New Sites that Including the COST_HA Field 447Considering the Site Eccentricity Criterion 448Making a Model of the Wildcat Boat Solution 450EXERCISE 7-11 (REVIEW)Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File 452CHAPTER 8 Spatial Analysis Based on Raster Data Processing 453A Really Different Processing Paradigm 453Facts about Rasters 454Coordinate Space 455Rasters with Integer Cell Values 456Rasters with Floating-Point Values 459What Is Raster Storage and Processing Good For? 459Rasters and Features 461Rasters: Input, Computation, and Output 461Where Raster Processing Shines: Cost Incurred Traveling over a Distance 462Proximity Calculation with Rasters 462Human Activity, Cost, and Distance 463Euclidean Distances on the Raster 463Euclidean Distance and the Spatial Analyst 465Proving Pythagoras Right 465Finding the Closest of Multiple Source Cells 466Excluding Distances beyond a Certain Threshold 467Other Factors That Infl uence Cost 467The Cost Distance Mechanism 468The Cost Distance Calculation 468Path Calculation in Euclidean Distance and Cost Distance 469Understanding How Total Costs Are Calculated 470Getting More Information: Paths and Allocations 471Direction and Allocation Rasters for Euclidean Distance 471Direction and Allocation Rasters for Cost Distance 471A Major Application of Raster Processing: Hydrology 471Basic Surface Hydrology 473Basic Surface Hydrology Concepts 474Calculating Flow Direction 474The Ultimate Destination of Water Is Off the Raster Area 475Flow Accumulation: Drainage Delineation and Rainfall Volume 476Nonuniform Rainfall 477Calculating the Length of a Potential Linear Water Body 478Assigning Identities to Streams 479Vector vs. Raster Representation 480Assigning Orders to Stream Links 480Watersheds and Pour Points 481STEP-BY-STEP 483EXERCISE 8-1 (PROJECT)Basic Raster Principles and Operations 483The Raster Calculator—Integer Rasters 486Arithmetic Calculation 487Boolean Operations 488Floating-Point Rasters 489EXERCISE 8-2 (PROJECT)Solving the Original Wildcat Boat Problem with Rasters 491Setting the General and Raster Environment 491Converting Features to Rasters 492Creating Rasters with Linear Features 496Buffering with Spatial Analyst (Maybe) 497Buffering—Plan B 498Reclassifying the Data 498Adding the Rasters with the Raster Calculator 501Converting Zones to Regions to Find Individual Sites 502EXERCISE 8-3 (PROJECT)Solving a Wildcat Boat Problem with Different Requirements 503EXERCISE 8-4 (DEMONSTRATION)Making Surfaces with IDW, Spline, Trend, Nearest Neighbor, and Kriging 506Points and Density 509Thiessen, Dirichlet, Voronoi (and, of course, Decartes) 509EXERCISE 8-5 (PROJECT)Rasters: Distance and Proximity 511Making a Raster Showing Straight-Line Distances to a Single Place 511Examining Many Source Cells and the Capping Distance 514Developing a Raster with Cost Distance 516Creating Direction and Allocation Rasters 518Using Cost Distance to Make Direction and Allocation Rasters 519Calculating a Least-Cost Path from “A” to “B” 522EXERCISE 8-6 (PROJECT)Putting the Tools Together: Find a Site for a Regional Park 523Setting Things Up 524Preparing to Create a Cost Surface 526Building a Cost Surface 527Improving the Understandability of the Map 529EXERCISE 8-7 (PROJECT)Watershed Analysis 529Examining the Surface with Various Spatial Analyst and 3D Tools 530Determining the Stream Channels 533Calculating Stream Order 533Numbering Each Stream Individually 534Identifying Basins 534Finding Pollution Culprits 534EXERCISE 8-8 (REVIEW)Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File 535CHAPTER 9 Other Dimensions, Other Tools, Other Solutions 537Two Different Third Dimensions: The Temporal and the Vertical Spatial 537THE THIRD SPATIAL DIMENSION: OVERVIEW 5393-D: 2-D (Spatial) Plus 1-D (Spatial) 539ArcScene 539ArcGlobe 540THE THIRD SPATIAL DIMENSION: STEP-BY-STEP 541An (Almost) New Software Package: ArcScene 541EXERCISE 9-1 (PROJECT)Experimenting with 3-D 542ArcScene 542What’s 3-D and What’s Not 543Viewing 3-D Data with Animation 546Making a TIN and Other 3-D Representations of Elevation 549Creating DEM fi les with Kriging 551Creating a Map of Contour Lines 553Two-and-a-Half Dimensions (2.5-D): Calculating Volumes 553Calculating a Volume with ArcGIS 554Other Neat Stuff You Can Do with 3D Analyst: Viewshed and Hillshade 556A Closer Look at ArcGlobe and Adding Data to It 558Making a Terrain 560THE TIME DIMENSION: OVERVIEW 5673-D: 2-D (Spatial) Plus 1-D (Temporal) 567THE TIME DIMENSION: STEP-BY-STEP 569EXERCISE 9-2 (PROJECT)Looking at Infrastructure Changes Occurring over Time 569Sliding through Time—Seeing Changes in Features at Intervals 573ADDRESS GEOCODING: OVERVIEW 575A Second Fundamental Way of Defining Location 575TIGER/Line Files 576Precision of the Geographic Coordinates in TIGER Files 578Address Locators 579ADDRESS GEOCODING: STEP-BY-STEP 581EXERCISE 9-3 (PROJECT)Experimenting with Addresses and Coordinates 581Finding the Geographic Position of an Address “Manually” 582Making an Address Locator 584Finding the Geographic Position of an Address “Automatically” 584TIGER Files and ZIP Codes 585More to Know—More Information Available 586ANALYSIS OF NETWORKS: OVERVIEW 587ANALYSIS OF NETWORKS: STEP-BY-STEP 589EXERCISE 9-4 (PROJECT)Experimenting with Routes and Allocations 589Finding the Shortest Route to a Facility 593Allocating Territories to Facilities 595LINEAR REFERENCING: OVERVIEW 597LINEAR REFERENCING: STEP-BY-STEP 599EXERCISE 9-5 (PROJECT)Experimenting within Linear Features 599Intersecting Route Events 603What’s Not Covered Here 605EXERCISE 9-6 (REVIEW)Checking, Updating, and Organizing Your Fast Facts File 607Afterword: From Systems to Science by Michael Goodchild 609Index 611