The 17th and 18th centuries have been regarded as one of the most exciting periods in the history of Hungary and Transylvania. The wars of liberation to terminate the Ottoman occupation, the integration of the Transylvanian Principality into the Habsburg Empire after 150-years relative independence, the colonisation of the uncultivated lands during the Ottoman rule, the re-organisation of daily life and Prince Francis (Ferenc) Rákóczis independence war (17031711) indicated serious challenges for the Habsburg Court in Vienna. This period (16861711) felled serious duties to the Hungarian Catholic Church, too. Prior to these duties, the process of Counter-Reformation in Hungarys eastern and northern regions was getting increasingly under way: Orthodox Ruthenians and Romanians in Transylvania united with the Roman Catholic Church. The bishops, who were highly supported by the missionaries delegated from Rome in order to re-organise the Hungarian Catholic Churchs religious life, re-appeared at the seats of the abandoned dioceses after the 150-years Ottoman occupation and nearly 110-years pressure from the strong Protestantism supported by the Princes of Transylvania. The Armenians church-union in Transylvania must be, in fact, analysed in this church-historical context. The history of Armenians in Transylvania, escaping from Moldavia and Podolia between 1668 and 1672, should be regarded practically as an undiscovered area from both the Hungarian and international church-historical point of view. The church-union of the Armenians in Transylvania is primarily associated with Bishop Oxendio Virzirescos (16541715), an Armenian Uniate cleric educated at Collegium Urbanum in Rome, missionary efforts. In this work, I have tried to look for evident responses to these afore-mentioned problems, resting on the partly discovered and undiscovered sources as well as analysing critically a few of secondary literature.

Exactly 450 years after the solemn closure of the Council of Trent on 4 December 1563, scholars from diverse regional, disciplinary and confessional backgrounds convened in Leuven to reflect upon the impact of this Council, not only in Europe but also beyond. Their conclusions are to be found in these three impressive volumes. Bridging different generations of scholarship, the authors reassess in a first volume Tridentine views on the Bible, theology and liturgy, as well as their reception by Protestants, deconstructing many myths surviving in scholarship and society alike. They also deal with the mechanisms 'Rome' developed to hold a grip on the Council's implementation. The second volume analyzes the changes in local ecclesiastical life, initiated by bishops, orders and congregations, and the political strife and confessionalisation accompanying this reform process. The third and final volume examines the afterlife of Trent in arts and music, as well as in the global impact of Trent through missions.

This volume is one of scarce studies of religious literature of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth conducted by scholars from both Poland and Lithuania. What makes this endeavour important is mainly the will to overcome the frontiers and strains of the modern world that encourage exploring separateness instead of the realities of deep mutual interdependency. Lukasz Cybulski and Kristina Rutkovska analyse secular and religious writings of secular authors as well as those belonging to the clergy and religious orders. Their main interest lies in exploring the different genres of early modern Polish and Lithuanian sermons and novels, and in tracing this heritage to its social and literary context through the works' material presence in manuscript form and in print. Other papers in this volume give insights into the origins of vernacular translations of the Holy Scriptures and the controversies surrounding them, as well as into the written testimonies of religious devotion and conversions. The aim has been not only to confront different kinds of texts and experiences, but to situate this heritage in its social and confessional context.

At the Synod of Dordrecht (161819), the deep questions of justification and faith, election and rejection, time and eternity, grace and free will, the individual and the body of Christ, Israel and the church, the acquisition of salvation through Christ and its application by His Spirit, baptism and regeneration, and especially the precise relationship between these, were at stake. These deep questions are addressed in this study. Lines are drawn to the historical, theological and political context of the time of the synod. Patristics and the Middle Ages are not absent, nor are the metaphysical questions related to these theological issues. Also the church polity of Dordt is discussed, especially the roots, influences and structures of its church order. This volume ends with a hermeneutical reflection on the way we confess the electing God today.

Transylvanian Sabbatarianism emerged from the aspirations of the Reformation, without direct contact with the Jews. Although the most frequently asked question about them concerns their identity were they Christians or Jews the answers of the literature are superficial, biased, and take only an external point of view. The aim of this book, therefore, is to move closer to the 1617th century Sabbatarian manuscripts and to examine how much they were still connected to Christianity in their biblical interpretations, doctrines and religious practices, how they adapted to Judaism, and how they saw themselves in relation to the two world religions. The analysis of Reka Timea Ujlaki-Nagy shows that although they still held some Christian beliefs, these were considered to be incidental and unnecessary to salvation. Sabbatarians followed the ideal of an age preceding Christ, consequently the Reformation effort to restitute apostolic Christianity disappeared from their religious thought.

With Augustine, probably the most important church father of the early church, is the focus of interest. No figure had such authority throughout the Middle Ages, but also in modern times. This applies to such questions of sacramental and grace theology, historical theology, ecclesiology and anthropology as are extremely important for theology. Apparently no serious theologian could get past him. This applies all the more to the disputes during the Reformation. To put it bluntly, without Augustine the theologies of the Reformation would probably not exist. Every theologian referred to him - and yet this sometimes led to different theological perspectives. However, the subject of Augustine, which is documented and discussed in this anthology, stands in a broader context, on which a group of scholars, including Peter Walter, who died far too early, have been considering for a long time. These considerations were and are based on the observation, which can hardly be disputed, that research into early modern theological historiography is still shaped by the denominational interests and perspectives of the researchers. Of course, this circumstance contrasts with the fact that not only have similar debates and parallel developments occurred in all denominational theological knowledge cultures, but also with the fact that there have often been interactions or mutual influences. Therefore, a trans- and inter-confessional approach that explicitly takes these interferences into account promises methodological progress and new insights in terms of content.

The 17th and 18th centuries have been regarded as one of the most exciting periods in the history of Hungary and Transylvania. The wars of liberation to terminate the Ottoman occupation, the integration of the Transylvanian Principality into the Habsburg Empire after 150-years relative independence, the colonisation of the uncultivated lands during the Ottoman rule, the re-organisation of daily life and Prince Francis (Ferenc) Rákóczis independence war (17031711) indicated serious challenges for the Habsburg Court in Vienna. This period (16861711) felled serious duties to the Hungarian Catholic Church, too. Prior to these duties, the process of Counter-Reformation in Hungarys eastern and northern regions was getting increasingly under way: Orthodox Ruthenians and Romanians in Transylvania united with the Roman Catholic Church. The bishops, who were highly supported by the missionaries delegated from Rome in order to re-organise the Hungarian Catholic Churchs religious life, re-appeared at the seats of the abandoned dioceses after the 150-years Ottoman occupation and nearly 110-years pressure from the strong Protestantism supported by the Princes of Transylvania. The Armenians church-union in Transylvania must be, in fact, analysed in this church-historical context. The history of Armenians in Transylvania, escaping from Moldavia and Podolia between 1668 and 1672, should be regarded practically as an undiscovered area from both the Hungarian and international church-historical point of view. The church-union of the Armenians in Transylvania is primarily associated with Bishop Oxendio Virzirescos (16541715), an Armenian Uniate cleric educated at Collegium Urbanum in Rome, missionary efforts. In this work, I have tried to look for evident responses to these afore-mentioned problems, resting on the partly discovered and undiscovered sources as well as analysing critically a few of secondary literature.

Exactly 450 years after the solemn closure of the Council of Trent on 4 December 1563, scholars from diverse regional, disciplinary and confessional backgrounds convened in Leuven to reflect upon the impact of this Council, not only in Europe but also beyond. Their conclusions are to be found in these three impressive volumes. Bridging different generations of scholarship, the authors reassess in a first volume Tridentine views on the Bible, theology and liturgy, as well as their reception by Protestants, deconstructing many myths surviving in scholarship and society alike. They also deal with the mechanisms 'Rome' developed to hold a grip on the Council's implementation. The second volume analyzes the changes in local ecclesiastical life, initiated by bishops, orders and congregations, and the political strife and confessionalisation accompanying this reform process. The third and final volume examines the afterlife of Trent in arts and music, as well as in the global impact of Trent through missions.

This volume is one of scarce studies of religious literature of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth conducted by scholars from both Poland and Lithuania. What makes this endeavour important is mainly the will to overcome the frontiers and strains of the modern world that encourage exploring separateness instead of the realities of deep mutual interdependency. Lukasz Cybulski and Kristina Rutkovska analyse secular and religious writings of secular authors as well as those belonging to the clergy and religious orders. Their main interest lies in exploring the different genres of early modern Polish and Lithuanian sermons and novels, and in tracing this heritage to its social and literary context through the works' material presence in manuscript form and in print. Other papers in this volume give insights into the origins of vernacular translations of the Holy Scriptures and the controversies surrounding them, as well as into the written testimonies of religious devotion and conversions. The aim has been not only to confront different kinds of texts and experiences, but to situate this heritage in its social and confessional context.

At the Synod of Dordrecht (161819), the deep questions of justification and faith, election and rejection, time and eternity, grace and free will, the individual and the body of Christ, Israel and the church, the acquisition of salvation through Christ and its application by His Spirit, baptism and regeneration, and especially the precise relationship between these, were at stake. These deep questions are addressed in this study. Lines are drawn to the historical, theological and political context of the time of the synod. Patristics and the Middle Ages are not absent, nor are the metaphysical questions related to these theological issues. Also the church polity of Dordt is discussed, especially the roots, influences and structures of its church order. This volume ends with a hermeneutical reflection on the way we confess the electing God today.

Transylvanian Sabbatarianism emerged from the aspirations of the Reformation, without direct contact with the Jews. Although the most frequently asked question about them concerns their identity were they Christians or Jews the answers of the literature are superficial, biased, and take only an external point of view. The aim of this book, therefore, is to move closer to the 1617th century Sabbatarian manuscripts and to examine how much they were still connected to Christianity in their biblical interpretations, doctrines and religious practices, how they adapted to Judaism, and how they saw themselves in relation to the two world religions. The analysis of Reka Timea Ujlaki-Nagy shows that although they still held some Christian beliefs, these were considered to be incidental and unnecessary to salvation. Sabbatarians followed the ideal of an age preceding Christ, consequently the Reformation effort to restitute apostolic Christianity disappeared from their religious thought.

With Augustine, probably the most important church father of the early church, is the focus of interest. No figure had such authority throughout the Middle Ages, but also in modern times. This applies to such questions of sacramental and grace theology, historical theology, ecclesiology and anthropology as are extremely important for theology. Apparently no serious theologian could get past him. This applies all the more to the disputes during the Reformation. To put it bluntly, without Augustine the theologies of the Reformation would probably not exist. Every theologian referred to him - and yet this sometimes led to different theological perspectives. However, the subject of Augustine, which is documented and discussed in this anthology, stands in a broader context, on which a group of scholars, including Peter Walter, who died far too early, have been considering for a long time. These considerations were and are based on the observation, which can hardly be disputed, that research into early modern theological historiography is still shaped by the denominational interests and perspectives of the researchers. Of course, this circumstance contrasts with the fact that not only have similar debates and parallel developments occurred in all denominational theological knowledge cultures, but also with the fact that there have often been interactions or mutual influences. Therefore, a trans- and inter-confessional approach that explicitly takes these interferences into account promises methodological progress and new insights in terms of content.