Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods

Apostolos Kiritsakis, PhD was a Professor in the School of Food Technology and Nutrition, at the Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki, Greece. Dr Kiritsakis is one of the first scientists internationally, to conduct extensive research on olive oil and has lectured in many countries all over the world, on the benefits of quality olive oil on human health. Fereidoon Shahidi, PhD is a University Research Professor in the Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Canada. Dr Shahidi has been recognized as one of the world's most highly cited individuals and most productive scientists in the area of food, nutrition and agricultural science.

• List of Contributors xiiiPreface xix1 Olive tree history and evolution 1Giorgos Kostelenos and Apostolos Kiritsakis1.1 Introduction 11.2 The olive culture in the Mediterranean region 11.3 Evolution of the olive tree from a botanical point of view 31.4 A different approach 61.5 Conclusion 10References 112 Botanical characteristics of olive trees: cultivation and growth conditions – defense mechanisms to various stressors and effects on olive growth and functional compounds 13Eleni Tsantili, Evangelos Evangelou, and Apostolos Kiritsakis2.1 Introduction 132.2 Botanical characteristics 152.3 Cultivation and growth conditions 182.4 Defense mechanisms against various stresses 222.5 Factors affecting olive growth and functional compounds 242.6 Conclusion 27References 273 Conventional and organic cultivation and their effect on the functional composition of olive oil 35Nikolaos Volakakis, Emmanouil Kabourakis, and Carlo Leifert3.1 Introduction 353.2 Productivity 363.3 Environmental impact 363.4 Pesticide residues 373.5 Oil composition and quality 373.6 Conclusion 40References 404 The influence of growing region and cultivar on olives and olive oil characteristics and on their functional constituents 45Joan Tous4.1 Introduction 454.2 Overview of olive orchards in some world crop areas 454.3 Global olive oil cultivars 534.4 Olive oil composition affected by genetic and environmental factors 694.5 Conclusion 76Acknowledgments 76References 765 Olive fruit and olive oil composition and their functional compounds 81Fatima Paiva-Martins and Apostolos Kiritsakis5.1 Introduction 815.2 The olive fruit 815.3 Description of olive fruit and olive oil constituents 825.4 Olive oil 835.5 Pigments 885.6 Phenols 895.7 Hydrocarbons 975.8 Triterpenoids 985.9 Tocopherols 995.10 Aliphatic alcohols and waxes 1005.11 Sterols 1005.12 Flavor compounds 1035.13 Conclusion 104Acknowledgments 105References 1056 Mechanical harvesting of olives 117Sergio Castro-Garcia and Louise Ferguson6.1 Introduction 1176.2 Fruit removal from the tree 1176.3 Collection, cleaning, and transport of fallen fruits 1206.4 Continuous harvesters 1236.5 Effects on oil and fruit quality 1246.6 Conclusion 124References 1247 Olive fruit harvest and processing and their effects on oil functional compounds 127Apostolos Kiritsakis and Nick Sakellaropoulos7.1 Introduction 1277.2 Harvest time 1277.3 Harvest techniques 1297.4 Olive storage and transportation to the olive oil mill 1307.5 Processing steps 1317.6 Pressure process 1367.7 Centrifugation process 1377.8 Selective filtration (Sinolea) process 1387.9 Processing systems 1397.10 Olive fruit processing by-products and their significance 1407.11 The effect of enzymes in olive fruit processing and oil composition 1417.12 Effect of processing systems on olive oil quality and functional properties 1417.13 Conclusion 142References 1428 Application of HACCP and traceability in olive oil mills and packaging units and their effect on quality and functionality 147Athanasia M. Goula, Konstantinos Kiritsakis, and Apostolos Kiritsakis8.1 Introduction 1478.2 The basic HACCP benefits and rules 1478.3 Description and analysis of the HACCP program in the olive oil mill 1498.4 Application of the HACCP program in the packaging unit 1598.5 The context of traceability 1628.6 Traceability of olive oil 1638.7 Legislation for olive oil traceability 1648.8 Compositional markers of traceability 1668.9 DNA-based markers of traceability 1698.10 Sensory profile markers of traceability 1708.11 Conclusion 171References 1729 Integrated olive mill waste (OMW) processing toward complete by-product recovery of functional components 177Athanasia M. Goula and Dimitrios Gerasopoulos9.1 Introduction 1779.2 Characterization of olive mill waste 1799.3 Current technologies for olive mill waste treatment 1849.4 Recovery of functional components from olive mill waste 1879.5 Integral recovery and revalorization of olive mill waste 1949.6 Conclusion 197References 19710 Olive oil quality and its relation to the functional bioactives and their properties 205Apostolos Kiritsakis and Fereidoon Shahidi10.1 Introduction 20510.2 Hydrolysis (lipolysis) 20510.3 Oxidation 20610.4 Prevention of olive oil autoxidation 20810.5 Photooxidation 20910.6 Olive oil quality evaluation with methods other than the official 21110.7 Behavior of olive oil during frying process 21210.8 Off flavors of olive oil 21310.9 Factors affecting the quality of olive oil and its functional activity 21410.10 Effect of storage on quality and functional constituents of olive oil 21610.11 Conclusion 216References 21611 Optical nondestructive UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopic tools and chemometrics in the monitoring of olive oil functional compounds 221Vasiliki Lagouri, Vasiliki Manti, and Thanasis Gimisis11.1 Introduction: functional compounds in olive oil 22111.2 An introduction to UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopy in olive oil analysis 22211.3 Spectroscopic regions with interest for olive oil analysis 22211.4 The basics of chemometrics 22711.5 Spectral preprocessing methods 22811.6 UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopy and chemometrics in monitoring olive oil functional compounds 22911.7 UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopy and chemometrics in monitoring olive oil oxidation 23711.8 FTIR spectroscopy and chemometrics in monitoring olive oil functional compounds and antioxidant activity 24011.9 The use of UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopy in olive oil industry and trade 24111.10 Conclusion 244Acknowledgments 244References 24412 Oxidative stability and the role of minor and functional components of olive oil 249Giuseppe Fregapane and María Desamparados Salvador12.1 Introduction 24912.2 Olive oil oxidative stability 24912.3 Accelerated oxidative assays and shelf-life prediction 25412.4 Stability of olive oil components: fatty acids and minor components 25612.5 Antioxidant capacity of olive oil functional components 26012.6 Conclusion 261References 26213 Chemical and sensory changes in olive oil during deep frying 267George Siragakis and Dafni Karamanavi13.1 Introduction 26713.2 Alterations of chemical characteristics in frying olive oil 26813.3 Oxidation of olive oil during frying 27013.4 Methods for determination of polar compounds and evaluation of the quality of frying olive oil 27013.5 Evaluation of the quality of frying olive oil 27213.6 Prediction of oxidative stability under heating conditions 27213.7 Impact of deep frying on olive oil compared to other oils 27313.8 Conclusion 274References 27414 Olive oil packaging: recent developments 279Michael G. Kontominas14.1 Introduction 27914.2 Migration aspects during packaging 27914.3 Flavor scalping 28014.4 Effect of packaging materials on olive oil quality 28014.5 Conclusions 291References 29215 Table olives: processing, nutritional, and health implications 295Stanley George Kailis and Apostolos Kiritsakis15.1 Introduction 29515.2 Olive maturation stages for table olive processing 29515.3 Olive cultivars suitable for table olive processing 29815.4 Factors affecting raw olive fruit for table olive processing 29915.5 Table olive processing 30115.6 Nutritional, health, and safety aspects of table olives 31115.7 Quality and safety aspects relating to table olives 31515.8 Antibiotic aspects of olive polyphenols 32015.9 Probiotic capability of table olive products 32015.10 Conclusion 321References 32116 Greek-style table olives and their functional value 325Athena Grounta, Chrysoula C. Tassou, and Efstathios Z. Panagou16.1 Introduction 32516.2 Table olive processing in Greece 32616.3 Functional value of Greek table olives 33016.4 Conclusion 338References 33817 Food hazards and quality control in table olive processing with a special reference to functional compounds 343Mohamed Rahmani17.1 Introduction 34317.2 Table olive processing techniques 34517.3 New trends in table olive processing and quality control, with a special reference to functional products 34717.4 Food safety requirements for table olives 34817.5 Conclusion 350References 35118 Improving the quality of processed olives: acrylamide in Californian table olives 353Charoenprasert Suthawan and Alyson E. Mitchell18.1 Introduction 35318.2 Acrylamide formation in food and potential adverse health effects 35418.3 Regulation of acrylamide in food 35918.4 Acrylamide levels in olive products 35918.5 Effects of table olive processing methods on acrylamide formation 36018.6 Methods to mitigate acrylamide levels in processed table olives 36218.7 Conclusion 363References 36419 Antioxidants of olive oil, olive leaves, and their bioactivity 367Apostolos Kiritsakis, Fereidoon Shahidi, and Charalampos Anousakis19.1 Introduction 36719.2 Synthetic antioxidants 36819.3 Natural antioxidants 36819.4 Phenols in table olives 37019.5 Phenols and other constituents of olive leaves and other olive tree products 37019.6 Extraction and activities of phenolics 37219.7 Antioxidant and other properties of olive phenolics 37619.8 Conclusion 378References 37820 Composition and analysis of functional components of olive leaves 383Celia Rodríguez-Pérez, Rosa Quirantes-Piné, Jesús Lozano-Sánchez, Javier Menéndez, and Antonio Segura-Carretero20.1 Introduction 38320.2 Qualitative and quantitative analysis of olive leaves 38320.3 Future prospects 395Acknowledgments 397References 39721 Production of phenol-enriched olive oil 401Kostas Kiritsakis and Dimitrios Gerasopoulos21.1 Introduction 40121.2 Olive oil phenolic compounds and their functional properties 40121.3 Effect of the extraction process on olive oil functional compounds 40221.4 Enhancement of olive oil’s antioxidant content 40521.5 Conclusion 410References 41022 Olives and olive oil: a Mediterranean source of polyphenols 417Anna Tresserra-Rimbau and Rosa M. Lamuela-Raventós22.1 Introduction 41722.2 Phenolic profile of olives and olive oils 41722.3 Analytical approaches to characterize the phenolic profile of olives and olive oils 42022.4 Stability of polyphenols: cooking effects 42122.5 Health effects of olive and olive oil polyphenols 42322.6 Conclusion 427Acknowledgments 428References 42823 Bioactive components from olive oil as putative epigenetic modulators 435Tea Bilusic23.1 Introduction 43523.2 Epigenetics as a new scientific challenge 43523.3 Types of epigenetic modifications 43723.4 Environmental factors and epigenetics (the role of the diet) 43923.5 Epigenetics and human health 44323.6 Epigenetics and aging 44423.7 Olive oil components as dietary epigenetic modulators 44623.8 Conclusion 449References 44924 Phenolic compounds of olives and olive oil and their bioavailability 457Turkan Mutlu Keceli, Senem Kamiloglu, and Esra Capanoglu24.1 Introduction 45724.2 Phenolic compounds of olives and olive oil 45824.3 Bioavailability of olive and olive oil phenolics 46024.4 Conclusion 467References 46725 Antiatherogenic properties of olive oil glycolipids 471Haralabos C. Karantonis25.1 Introduction 47125.2 The role of inflammation in the development of chronic diseases 47125.3 The role of diet in inflammation 47325.4 PAF and its metabolism as a searching tool for functional components with antiatherogenic activity 47325.5 Functional components of olive oil with antiatherogenic properties 47425.6 Conclusion 478References 47926 Nutritional and health aspects of olive oil and diseases 483Elizabeth Lenart, Apostolos Kiritsakis, and Walter Willett26.1 Introduction 48326.2 Dietary lipids and cardiovascular disease 48526.3 Fat intake and cancer 49026.4 Obesity and dietary fat 49426.5 Conclusion 495References 49627 Lipidomics and health: an added value to olive oil 505Carla Ferreri and Chryssostomos Chatgilialoglu27.1 Introduction 50527.2 Lipidomics: an added value to olive oil 50527.3 Membrane lipidomics and nutrilipidomics: natural oils for a healthy balance 50627.4 Membrane as relevant site for lipidomic analysis 51227.5 Conclusion and perspectives 517Acknowledgments 517References 51728 Analysis of olive oil quality 521Fereidoon Shahidi, Priyatharini Ambigaipalan, and Apostolos Kiritsakis28.1 Introduction 52128.2 Fatty acid composition and analysis 52228.3 Measurement of oxidation 52328.4 Determination of chlorophylls 52928.5 Determination of phenols 53028.6 Cold test 53028.7 Determination of sterol content 53028.8 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of olive oil 53128.9 Authentication and authenticity of olive oil 531References 53129 Detection of extra virgin olive oil adulteration 537Hazem Jabeur, Akram Zribi, and Mohamed Bouaziz29.1 Introduction 53729.2 Parameters suitable for authenticity assessment of EVOO 53829.3 Direct authenticity assessment of EVOO 54629.4 Conclusion 549Acknowledgments 550References 55030 Authentication of olive oil based on minor components 555Styliani Christophoridou30.1 Introduction 55530.2 Sterols 55530.3 Vitamin E – tocopherols 55630.4 Phenols 55830.5 Volatiles 55930.6 Olive oil pigments 56030.7 Conclusion 562References 56231 New analytical trends for the measurement of phenolic substances of olive oil and olives with significant biological and functional importance related to health claims 569Eleni Melliou, Panagiotis Diamantakos, and Prokopios Magiatis31.1 Introduction 56931.2 Phenolic compounds of olive oil with special importance 56931.3 Analysis of table olives 58131.4 Conclusion 582References 58232 DNA fingerprinting as a novel tool for olive and olive oil authentication, traceability, and detection of functional compounds 587Aliki Xanthopoulou, Ioannis Ganopoulos, Irene Bosmali, Athanasios Tsaftaris, and Panagiotis Madesis32.1 Introduction 58732.2 DNA-based fingerprinting 58832.3 Omics approaches in olive and detection of functional compounds 595References 59633 Sensory properties and evaluation of virgin olive oils 603Emmanuel Salivaras33.1 Introduction 60333.2 Description and review of methodology 60333.3 Chemistry, functionality, and technology behind senses 61233.4 Positive sensory attributes of virgin olive oil and its consumption 623References 62434 International standards and legislative issues concerning olive oil and table olives and the nutritional, functional, and health claims related 629Stylianos Koulouris34.1 Introduction 62934.2 The international perspective 62934.3 Legislative approach by various countries 63234.4 The European Union perspective 63634.5 Nutrition and health claims related to olive oils 63834.6 Conclusion 644References 64435 The functional olive oil market: marketing prospects and opportunities 647Konstantinos Mattas and Efthimia Tsakiridou35.1 Introduction 64735.2 The olive oil market 64735.3 The influence of certifications of origin and production methods in olive oil 65235.4 Case study: survey on consumption patterns, labeling, certification, and willingness to pay for olive oil 65335.5 Promotional strategies 65435.6 Conclusion 656References 657Future Research Needs 659Index 661