Why Neuroscience Matters in the Classroom

Kathleen Scalise is an award-winning associate professor at the University of Oregon who has served nationally and internationally on numerous distinguished projects in science literacy for teachers and students. In 2013, she served a dual appointment as a visiting research scientist with Columbia University’s Department of Neuroscience and as a visiting scholar with Teachers College at Columbia. Director of the U.S. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in Science for ETS, she has served internationally in science literacy and assessment efforts with the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). She was appointed in 2012 by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences to serve on the National Research Council (NRC) Committee on a Framework for Assessment of Science Proficiency in K-12. She is author of numerous scholarly and research publications in STEM education (science, technology, engineering and mathematics). She received the Early Career Teaching Award from the University of Oregon for her excellence in teaching in 2007. She holds K-12 teaching credentials in physical sciences and life sciences, a bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, and the Ph.D. from UC Berkeley (2004).Marie Felde is a veteran writer whose career as a daily journalist, editor, and university communications executive has focused on taking complex, often scientific and technical material and translating it into easy to read information that readers find engaging and useful. As Executive Director of Media Relations at the University of California, Berkeley, she led a team of experienced science and education writers at one of the world’s leading universities highlighting the value of learning and the creation of new knowledge.

• Brief Table of Contents Chapter 1. A CORE of Understanding - 2Framework of the CORE: Seven Guiding Principles and Their Associated “Big Ideas” - 34Chapter 2. Neural Plasticity - 36Chapter 3. Cognition and Instructional Design - 62Chapter 4. Encoding Strategies and Memory - 90Chapter 5. Elaborating on Instructional Design - 118Chapter 6. Sleep, Exercise, and Nutrition - 142Chapter 7. Emotional Function and Attitude in the Brain - 166Chapter 8. Stress - 192Chapter 9. Feedback and Evidence in the Brain - 208Chapter 10. Sensitive Periods - 232Chapter 11. Insights across the Curriculum - 248Chapter 12. Action Plan - 282Appendix A Technical Report on Development of the CORE - 292Appendix B Summary of Sampled Resources of the CORE - 308Index - 315Detailed Table of Contents Chapter 1. A CORE of Understanding - 2The Power of Three: Three Learning Sciences Are Better Than One 4The Power of Three: A Focus on Reading 6A Word about Neuromyths 7Organization of This Book 8Introducing Seven Guiding Principles 10Establishing a CORE 10Laying Out the CORE 11Succeeding in the 21st Century 16Bringing Cognitive Science into the Classroom 17Going Beyond the CORE 20Conclusion 21Resources 22References 22Framework of the CORE: Seven Guiding Principles and Their Associated “Big Ideas” - 34Chapter 2. Neural Plasticity - 36Plasticity Defined 39Importance of Plasticity 39Building on What is Useful 41A Tale of Two Signaling Systems 42Staying Thoroughly Modern 45Exploring the Capacity to Change 47Brain Growth Pioneer and Legendary Teacher 49Pruning’s Surprising Role 51Does the Brain Make Value Judgments? 55To Reason Like Einstein 55What Gets Fired Gets Wired 56Conclusion 58Closing Scenario 58Citations 59References 59Chapter 3. Cognition and Instructional Design - 62Approaching Instructional Design 64Priming, Elaboration, Extension, Knowledge Integration: An Example 66The Benefits of Using Your Own Experiences 68Thinking about . . . Cognition 71Who’s in Charge: The Mind or the Brain? 71Executive Function: A CEO of the Brain 74Brain Power to Spare? No Way 79Environments in Which We Thrive 80Allocating Attention: An Example 82The Flynn Effect in Cognition 83Patterns in the Brain 85Conclusion 86Closing Scenario 87Citations 88References 88Chapter 4. Encoding Strategies and Memory - 90 Why Memory Matters 92Organization of Memory: Two Processes Defined 92Working Memory at Work 93Long-Term Memory Examples and Implications 94Connecting Memory with Instructional Design 96Are We Programmed to Forget? 97Knowledge Integration 99Memory as an Investment and Commitment of Resources 100The Three Processes of Memory: Acquiring, Accessing, and Retaining 100Luke Skywalker and Accessing Our Memories 103Memory Retrieval and the Importance of Association 104How Chunking Builds Useful Memory 105Repeated Exposure Enhances Memory Making 106Practice (of the Right Kind) Makes Perfect 108Making Homework Memorable 109Primacy, Timing, and Memory 110How Much Can We Remember? 111Managing Cognitive Load 112A Word about Skill Acquisition and Memory 113Reluctant to Give Up Our Associations 114Conclusion 115Closing Scenario 116References 116Chapter 5. Elaborating on Instructional Design - 118Approaching Instructional Design 120Approaches to Not Lose Learning 122Our “Original” Thinking 123Tapping into the Perceptual Field 124Seeing Patterns of Importance 125Similarity and Difference: The SAD Effect 127A “Training Set” for the Brain 128Putting Similarities and Differences to Work 129How Representations Diagram Our Thinking 130Making Connections “Conditionalizes” Knowledge 131Making It “Real” for the Brain 132Transfer is Introduced 133Scaffolding and Fading 134The Social Nature of Cognitive Engagement 137Conclusion 139Closing Scenario 139Citations 140References 140Chapter 6. Sleep, Exercise, and Nutrition - 142Sleep 144Sleep to Learn Better 144Research Moves Rapidly Ahead 146Say “Yes” to Naps 148The Curse of Too Little Sleep 149Not All Sleep Is the Same 149What Information Gets Remembered? 150Sleep and Brain Plasticity 151Exercise 151More Than Child’s Play 151Fitness Matters to the Brain 152Run, Mice, Run 152Looking Specifically at Children 154How Much and What Kind? 155Walking to School Gets an A 156Elite Athletes Excel Off the Court, Too 157Nutrition 157Food for Thought 157Powering the Brain for Learning 158Nutrition Early in Life Is Key 159Brain Drain: When You Eat Matters 160A Is for Apples 161Conclusion 161Closing Scenario 162Citations 163References 163Chapter 7. Emotional Function and Attitude in the Brain - 166The Brain Needs Emotional Input 167Emotion and Feeling Differ 169Neurotransmitters’ “All Alert” 171How Emotion Works in the Brain 173A Framework for Learning Resistance 177Resistance as Part of Our Fundamental Makeup 178The First Plank: Survival of Body and Mind 179The Second Plank: Emotional Well-Being, the “Hot Button” Lens 180The Third Plank: The Emotional Impact of Relevance 182The Telling Response to Challenge 185Students Motivated by Their Own Brains 186Brain Awareness Motivates Her Students 187Conclusion 188Closing Scenario 189Citations 190References 190Chapter 8. Stress - 192Stress, Distress, and Anxiety 194The Stress Response 198Stress, Up to a Point, Has Benefits 201Brief Stress Primes Neuron Growth 202Test-Taking Warriors and Worriers 203Perception Matters . . . a Lot 205Conclusion 205Closing Scenario 206Citations 206References 207Chapter 9. Feedback and Evidence in the Brain - 208Feedback Abounds in the Classroom 210Teaching Teachers about Feedback and Evidence as a Brain Concept 210How Feedback and Evidence Work in the Brain 211Feedback and Evidence from the View of Teachers 216Feedback that Works: What Does the Evidence Say? 216Feedback and Attention 220Feedback or Instruction? 220Making Formative Assessment Effective 221When Going Extinct Is Desirable 222Feedback and Evidence Traps to Avoid 222Reflections on Goal Setting and Feedback 224Prediction and EvidenceAccumulating Evidence to Mak225 e Decisions 226Mindfully Filling Gaps 227Conclusion 229Closing Scenario 230Citations 230References 231Chapter 10. Sensitive Periods - 232Sensitive Periods or Critical Periods? 234A Preferential Time of Brain Reorganization 236The Role of Experience and Exposure 236Early Musical Training and the Brain: An Example 240Research Frontiers in Sensitive Periods 242A Caution on Overinterpreting Findings 243Sensitive or Deprived? 244Conclusion 245Closing Scenario 245Citations 246References 246Chapter 11. Insights across the Curriculum - 248Quantitative Thinking in the Brain 252Following Cognitive Hunches 253Our Mental Number Line 254Some Approaches to Support Mastery 257Literacy, Reading, and the Representation of Language in the Brain 260Words and Parsing Language 261Moving on to Meaning 264Some Approaches to Support Mastery 266Reasoning in the Brain 268The Brain as a Reason Machine 269Toward Intercultural Competence 272Some Approaches to Support Mastery 273Conclusion 276Closing Scenario 277Citations 278References 279Chapter 12. Action Plan - 282The Perspective from Scientists 283The Perspective from Teachers 284It Takes a Village: Actions That Schools and Educators Can Take 287Moving Ahead in the 21st Century 289Conclusion 290Citations 290References 291Appendix A Technical Report on Development of the CORE - 292Appendix B Summary of Sampled Resources of the CORE - 308Index - 315