Jo De Waele is Full Professor in the Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences at the University of Bologna, Italy. Francisco Gutiérrez is Full Professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Zaragoza, Spain.

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• Preface xiv1 Introduction to Karst 11.1 The Term Karst. Definition and Origin 11.2 Classification of Karst 21.3 Global Distribution of Karst 81.4 Karst Terminology 122 Karst Rocks 152.1 Karst Rocks Within the Rock Classifications 152.2 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals 172.2.1 Carbonate Minerals 202.2.2 Depositional Environments and Components of Marine Limestones 232.2.3 Limestone Classification Schemes 282.2.4 Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy 302.2.5 Limestone Diagenesis 322.2.6 Dolomite and Dolomitization 352.2.7 Terrestrial Carbonates 392.2.8 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks 442.2.9 Other Carbonate Rocks 462.2.9.1 Carbonate Conglomerates and Sandstones 462.2.9.2 Carbonate Breccias 472.2.9.3 Marbles 502.2.9.4 Carbonatites 512.3 Evaporite Rocks and Minerals 522.3.1 Gypsum and Anhydrite 562.3.2 Halite 622.3.3 Other Salts 652.4 Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 673 Dissolution of Karst Rocks 763.1 Introduction 763.2 Basic Concepts and Parameters 803.2.1 Water, an Exceptional Dipolar Molecule and Solvent 803.2.2 Concentration Units and Related Parameters 823.2.3 Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs Free Energy of Reaction 863.2.4 Activity 883.2.5 Saturation Index 893.2.6 pH and the Acidity of Karst Waters 903.3 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters 913.3.1 Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 923.3.2 Carbon Dioxide in Soils 943.3.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide in Water and the Carbonic Acid System 973.3.4 The Dissolution of Calcite and Dolomite 993.3.5 The Solubility of Carbonate Minerals 1013.3.6 Open and Closed CO 2 - Dissolution Systems 1023.4 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks by Sulfuric Acid 1053.5 The Dissolution of Gypsum and Halite 1113.6 The Dissolution of Silica 1153.7 Factors that Influence the Solubility and Saturation State 1173.7.1 Effects Related to Temperature and Pressure Changes 1183.7.2 Common-Ion Effect 1223.7.3 Ionic-Strength Effect 1233.7.4 Ion-Pair Effect 1233.7.5 Water Mixing 1243.7.6 Exotic Inorganic Acids 1273.7.7 Acid Rain 1273.8 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst Minerals 1303.8.1 Dissolution Kinetics of Calcite, Aragonite, and Dolomite 1333.8.2 Dissolution Kinetics of Gypsum and Halite 1413.9 Geological Controls on Karst Development 1433.9.1 Rock Composition and Purity 1433.9.2 Grain Size and Texture 1473.9.3 Porosity 1483.9.4 Bedding Planes and Stratigraphic Contacts 1503.9.5 Joints 1533.9.6 Faults 1593.9.7 Folds 1633.9.8 Interbedded Non- soluble Rocks 1673.10 Biokarst Processes 1693.10.1 Biokarst Processes Associated with the Surface Environment 1703.10.2 Biokarst Processes in Caves 1734 Denudation in Karst. Rates and Spatial Distribution 1954.1 Basic Concepts 1954.2 Controlling Factors and the Influence of Climate 1984.3 Methods for Measuring Denudation Rates and the Carbonate Karst Experience 2034.3.1 Hydrochemical Measurements 2034.3.2 Weight Loss of Standard Tablets 2084.3.3 Micro- erosion Meter 2104.3.4 High- Resolution 3d Surface Models 2114.3.5 Long- term Surface Lowering around Pedestals, Dikes, and Siliceous Nodules 2134.3.6 Long- term Erosion Rates Derived from Cosmogenic Chlorine- 36 in Calcite 2174.4 Denudation Rates in Gypsum and Salt 2194.5 Solutional Denudation of Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 2284.6 Interpretation and Integration of Denudation Rates 2334.6.1 Vertical and Spatial Distribution of Karst Denudation and Deposition 2354.6.2 Long- term Rates of Base- Level Lowering and Downcutting 2425 Karst Hydrogeology 2605.1 Introduction 2605.2 Brief Historical Overview on Karst Hydrogeology (<1900) 2605.3 Definitions 2625.4 Groundwater Flow Fundamentals 2675.4.1 Laminar Flow Through Granular Media 2675.4.2 Turbulent Flow Through Conduits 2695.4.3 Flow Through Fractured Media 2715.5 Groundwater Flow in Karst Aquifers 2715.5.1 The Hydrological and Geological Water Cycle 2725.5.2 The Energy and Forces Involved in Groundwater Flow in Karst 2755.5.3 Inputs 2765.5.4 Outputs 2795.5.5 Throughput 2805.5.6 Lithological and Structural Control on Groundwater Flow 2835.5.7 Karst Groundwater Basins 2875.5.8 Hydrological Role of the Epikarst and the Transmission Zone 2875.5.9 The Water Table in Karst 2895.5.10 Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 2915.6 Analysis of Karst Groundwater Basins 2925.6.1 Defining Karst Aquifers 2925.6.2 Complementary Approaches in Karst Aquifer Studies 2935.6.3 Groundwater Basin Definition and Water Balance 2955.6.4 Precipitation and Recharge 2965.6.5 Flow Measurements 2965.6.6 Boreholes 2995.6.7 Spring Hydrographs and Chemographs 3045.6.8 Water Tracing 3115.6.9 Isotopes 3195.6.10 Remote Sensing and Geophysical Techniques 3225.6.11 Karst Aquifer Modeling 325  6 Karren and Sinkholes 3366.1 Karst. A Special Geomorphic System 3366.2 Karren 3376.2.1 Bare Karren 3416.2.2 Covered Karren 3586.2.3 Bare and Covered Structural Karren 3616.2.4 Coastal Karren 3686.3 Sinkholes (Dolines) 3746.3.1 General Aspects and Classification 3746.3.2 Solution Sinkholes and Polygonal Karst 3806.3.3 Collapse Sinkholes 3876.3.4 Suffosion Sinkholes 4006.3.5 Sagging Sinkholes 4026.3.6 Factors that Control Subsidence Sinkholes and Human-Induced Sinkholes 4076.3.7 Sinkhole Mapping 4166.3.8 Sinkhole Morphometry and Spatial Distribution 4247 Other Karst Landforms 4667.1 Poljes 4667.1.1 General Aspects and Distribution 4667.1.2 Geomorphological, Hydrological and Geological Features of Poljes 4687.1.3 Origin and Classification 4757.2 Corrosion Plains, Rejuvenation, and Submergence 4777.3 Residual Hills. Fenglin and Fengcong 4847.4 Valleys in Karst 4897.4.1 Through Valleys 4907.4.2 Blind Valleys 4937.4.3 Pocket Valleys 4957.4.4 Cave- Collapse Valleys 4957.4.5 Dry Valleys 4977.5 Constructional Features. Calcareous Tufas and Travertines 4988 Special Features Associated with Evaporites 5178.1 Interstratal Evaporite Karst 5198.2 Covered Evaporite Karst 5388.3 Bare Evaporite Karst 5418.4 Salt Tectonics and Karst in Salt Extrusions 5468.4.1 The Special Rheology of Rock Salt. An Exceptional Mobile Bedrock 5468.4.2 Salt Structures and the Geomorphic Impact of Salt Flow 5488.4.3 The Morphological Evolution of Salt Extrusions and the Role of Dissolution 5519 Cave Geomorphology 5749.1 Introduction 5749.1.1 Definition of Cave 5749.1.2 Cave- Forming Processes 5759.1.3 Cave Classifications 5779.1.3.1 Solution Caves 5779.1.3.2 Caves Related to Mechanical Movement and Accumulation 5889.1.3.3 Caves Related to Mechanical Weathering and Erosion 5899.1.3.4 Depositional Caves 5949.1.3.5 Caves Related to Melting 5959.1.3.6 Caves Related to Solidification 5969.2 Macromorphology 5989.2.1 Cave Surveying 5999.2.2 Cave Entrances 6009.2.3 Cave Passages 6039.2.3.1 Shafts 6049.2.3.2 Canyons 6079.2.3.3 Tubes 6099.2.3.4 Fissures 6109.2.3.5 Mixed Phreatic- Vadose Forms 6119.2.3.6 Phantom (Ghost- Rock) Passages 6119.2.4 Cave Rooms 6139.2.5 Cave and Passage Terminations 6149.2.6 Cave Ground Plans 6159.2.7 Cave Profile and Cave Storeys 6189.3 Speleogens: Small- Scale Passage Morphologies 62110 Cave Deposits 65410.1 Introduction 65410.2 Classification of Cave Sediments 65510.3 Clastic Sediments 65710.3.1 The Cave Sedimentary System 65710.3.2 The Origin and Flux of Clastic Sediments in Caves 65710.3.3 Fluvial Erosion and Transport 65910.3.4 The Cave Sedimentary Facies 66110.3.5 Other Allogenic Clastic Sediments 66410.3.6 Provenance of Allogenic Clastic Cave Sediments 66610.3.7 Autogenic Clastic Sediments 66710.3.8 Anthropic Waste 67110.3.9 Sedimentary Structures 67210.4 Organic Sediments 67510.4.1 Vegetal and Animal Debris 67610.4.2 Autogenic Organic Sediments 67810.5 Transported Chemical Deposits 67910.6 Chemical Deposits 67910.6.1 Minerogenetic Mechanisms in Caves 68010.6.2 Carbonates 68310.6.3 Other Cave Minerals 68710.6.3.1 Halides 69010.6.3.2 Sulfates 69010.6.3.3 Phosphates and Nitrates 69310.6.3.4 Oxides and Hydroxides 69410.6.3.5 Silica and Silicates 69610.6.4 Secondary Ice 69610.7 Speleothems 69810.7.1 Speleothems Formed by Dripping and Flowing Water 70210.7.2 Speleothems Formed in Vadose Standing Water Bodies 71210.7.3 Speleothems Formed in Phreatic (Thermal) Water Bodies 71810.7.4 Speleothems Formed by Dominant Evaporation 71810.7.5 Speleothems Formed by Capillary Water 72510.7.6 Speleothems Formed by Microorganisms 72810.7.7 The Color of Speleothems 73110.7.8 Speleothem Growth Rate 73210.7.9 Decay of Speleothems 73310.7.10 Dating Clastic and Chemical Cave Sediments 73610.7.10.1 Radiocarbon 73610.7.10.2 Uranium–Thorium 73810.7.10.3 Uranium- Lead and Other Methods 74010.7.10.4 Aluminum–Beryllium 74110.7.10.5 Potassium–Argon 74210.7.10.6 Electron Spin Resonance, Optically Stimulated Luminescence, and Thermoluminescence 74210.7.10.7 Amino Acid Racemization 74310.7.10.8 Paleomagnetism 74310.7.10.9 Lamina Counting- Fluorescence- Trace Elements 74410.8 Cave Sediments as Paleoclimate and Paleo- Environmental Archives 74511  Speleogenesis: How Solutional Caves Form 76211.1 The Growth of Ideas about Cave Genesis 76211.2 Geological Controls on Cave Genesis in Carbonate Rocks 76511.2.1 Influence of Lithology 76511.2.1.1 Influence of Rock Purity 76511.2.1.2 Influence of Grain Size and Texture 76611.2.1.3 Influence of Matrix Porosity 76611.2.2 Influence of Stratigraphic Position of Soluble Rocks 76611.2.3 Influence of Geological Structures 76811.2.3.1 Influence of Bedding Planes 76911.2.3.2 Influence of Joints 77111.2.3.3 Influence of Faults 77111.2.3.4 Influence of Folds 77211.2.3.5 Inception Horizons 77211.2.4 Topography, Base- Level and Climate 77311.3 Simple Models of Initial Cave Development 77511.3.1 Hardware Models of a Single Input 77611.3.2 Computer Modeling of a Single Fissure 77711.3.3 Hardware Modeling of Multiple Inputs 77911.3.4 Computer Modeling of Two- and Three- Dimensional Fissure Networks 78211.4 Hydrogeological Controls on Cave Genesis 78411.4.1 Multiple- Point Recharge 78511.4.2 Concentrated Recharge 78611.4.3 Diffuse Recharge from Above 79211.4.4 Diffuse Recharge from Below 79411.4.5 Rising Thermal Fluids 79711.4.6 Sulfuric Acid Fluids 80511.4.7 Coastal Mixing 81411.5 Caves in Non- Carbonate Rocks 82311.5.1 Halite Caves 82311.5.2 Gypsum–Anhydrite Caves 82411.5.3 Quartzite Caves 83011.5.4 Iron Formation Caves 83211.6 Condensation–Corrosion 83411.7 A Summary: Life Cycle of Solution Caves 83911.7.1 Initiation of a Cave 83911.7.2 Rapid Cave Enlargement 84011.7.3 Cave Maturation 84111.7.4 Cave Abandonment and Decay 842Index 857

Jo De Waele is Full Professor in the Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences at the University of Bologna, Italy. Francisco Gutiérrez is Full Professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Zaragoza, Spain.

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• Preface xiv1 Introduction to Karst 11.1 The Term Karst. Definition and Origin 11.2 Classification of Karst 21.3 Global Distribution of Karst 81.4 Karst Terminology 122 Karst Rocks 152.1 Karst Rocks Within the Rock Classifications 152.2 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals 172.2.1 Carbonate Minerals 202.2.2 Depositional Environments and Components of Marine Limestones 232.2.3 Limestone Classification Schemes 282.2.4 Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy 302.2.5 Limestone Diagenesis 322.2.6 Dolomite and Dolomitization 352.2.7 Terrestrial Carbonates 392.2.8 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks 442.2.9 Other Carbonate Rocks 462.2.9.1 Carbonate Conglomerates and Sandstones 462.2.9.2 Carbonate Breccias 472.2.9.3 Marbles 502.2.9.4 Carbonatites 512.3 Evaporite Rocks and Minerals 522.3.1 Gypsum and Anhydrite 562.3.2 Halite 622.3.3 Other Salts 652.4 Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 673 Dissolution of Karst Rocks 763.1 Introduction 763.2 Basic Concepts and Parameters 803.2.1 Water, an Exceptional Dipolar Molecule and Solvent 803.2.2 Concentration Units and Related Parameters 823.2.3 Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs Free Energy of Reaction 863.2.4 Activity 883.2.5 Saturation Index 893.2.6 pH and the Acidity of Karst Waters 903.3 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters 913.3.1 Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 923.3.2 Carbon Dioxide in Soils 943.3.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide in Water and the Carbonic Acid System 973.3.4 The Dissolution of Calcite and Dolomite 993.3.5 The Solubility of Carbonate Minerals 1013.3.6 Open and Closed CO 2 - Dissolution Systems 1023.4 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks by Sulfuric Acid 1053.5 The Dissolution of Gypsum and Halite 1113.6 The Dissolution of Silica 1153.7 Factors that Influence the Solubility and Saturation State 1173.7.1 Effects Related to Temperature and Pressure Changes 1183.7.2 Common-Ion Effect 1223.7.3 Ionic-Strength Effect 1233.7.4 Ion-Pair Effect 1233.7.5 Water Mixing 1243.7.6 Exotic Inorganic Acids 1273.7.7 Acid Rain 1273.8 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst Minerals 1303.8.1 Dissolution Kinetics of Calcite, Aragonite, and Dolomite 1333.8.2 Dissolution Kinetics of Gypsum and Halite 1413.9 Geological Controls on Karst Development 1433.9.1 Rock Composition and Purity 1433.9.2 Grain Size and Texture 1473.9.3 Porosity 1483.9.4 Bedding Planes and Stratigraphic Contacts 1503.9.5 Joints 1533.9.6 Faults 1593.9.7 Folds 1633.9.8 Interbedded Non- soluble Rocks 1673.10 Biokarst Processes 1693.10.1 Biokarst Processes Associated with the Surface Environment 1703.10.2 Biokarst Processes in Caves 1734 Denudation in Karst. Rates and Spatial Distribution 1954.1 Basic Concepts 1954.2 Controlling Factors and the Influence of Climate 1984.3 Methods for Measuring Denudation Rates and the Carbonate Karst Experience 2034.3.1 Hydrochemical Measurements 2034.3.2 Weight Loss of Standard Tablets 2084.3.3 Micro- erosion Meter 2104.3.4 High- Resolution 3d Surface Models 2114.3.5 Long- term Surface Lowering around Pedestals, Dikes, and Siliceous Nodules 2134.3.6 Long- term Erosion Rates Derived from Cosmogenic Chlorine- 36 in Calcite 2174.4 Denudation Rates in Gypsum and Salt 2194.5 Solutional Denudation of Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 2284.6 Interpretation and Integration of Denudation Rates 2334.6.1 Vertical and Spatial Distribution of Karst Denudation and Deposition 2354.6.2 Long- term Rates of Base- Level Lowering and Downcutting 2425 Karst Hydrogeology 2605.1 Introduction 2605.2 Brief Historical Overview on Karst Hydrogeology (<1900) 2605.3 Definitions 2625.4 Groundwater Flow Fundamentals 2675.4.1 Laminar Flow Through Granular Media 2675.4.2 Turbulent Flow Through Conduits 2695.4.3 Flow Through Fractured Media 2715.5 Groundwater Flow in Karst Aquifers 2715.5.1 The Hydrological and Geological Water Cycle 2725.5.2 The Energy and Forces Involved in Groundwater Flow in Karst 2755.5.3 Inputs 2765.5.4 Outputs 2795.5.5 Throughput 2805.5.6 Lithological and Structural Control on Groundwater Flow 2835.5.7 Karst Groundwater Basins 2875.5.8 Hydrological Role of the Epikarst and the Transmission Zone 2875.5.9 The Water Table in Karst 2895.5.10 Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 2915.6 Analysis of Karst Groundwater Basins 2925.6.1 Defining Karst Aquifers 2925.6.2 Complementary Approaches in Karst Aquifer Studies 2935.6.3 Groundwater Basin Definition and Water Balance 2955.6.4 Precipitation and Recharge 2965.6.5 Flow Measurements 2965.6.6 Boreholes 2995.6.7 Spring Hydrographs and Chemographs 3045.6.8 Water Tracing 3115.6.9 Isotopes 3195.6.10 Remote Sensing and Geophysical Techniques 3225.6.11 Karst Aquifer Modeling 325  6 Karren and Sinkholes 3366.1 Karst. A Special Geomorphic System 3366.2 Karren 3376.2.1 Bare Karren 3416.2.2 Covered Karren 3586.2.3 Bare and Covered Structural Karren 3616.2.4 Coastal Karren 3686.3 Sinkholes (Dolines) 3746.3.1 General Aspects and Classification 3746.3.2 Solution Sinkholes and Polygonal Karst 3806.3.3 Collapse Sinkholes 3876.3.4 Suffosion Sinkholes 4006.3.5 Sagging Sinkholes 4026.3.6 Factors that Control Subsidence Sinkholes and Human-Induced Sinkholes 4076.3.7 Sinkhole Mapping 4166.3.8 Sinkhole Morphometry and Spatial Distribution 4247 Other Karst Landforms 4667.1 Poljes 4667.1.1 General Aspects and Distribution 4667.1.2 Geomorphological, Hydrological and Geological Features of Poljes 4687.1.3 Origin and Classification 4757.2 Corrosion Plains, Rejuvenation, and Submergence 4777.3 Residual Hills. Fenglin and Fengcong 4847.4 Valleys in Karst 4897.4.1 Through Valleys 4907.4.2 Blind Valleys 4937.4.3 Pocket Valleys 4957.4.4 Cave- Collapse Valleys 4957.4.5 Dry Valleys 4977.5 Constructional Features. Calcareous Tufas and Travertines 4988 Special Features Associated with Evaporites 5178.1 Interstratal Evaporite Karst 5198.2 Covered Evaporite Karst 5388.3 Bare Evaporite Karst 5418.4 Salt Tectonics and Karst in Salt Extrusions 5468.4.1 The Special Rheology of Rock Salt. An Exceptional Mobile Bedrock 5468.4.2 Salt Structures and the Geomorphic Impact of Salt Flow 5488.4.3 The Morphological Evolution of Salt Extrusions and the Role of Dissolution 5519 Cave Geomorphology 5749.1 Introduction 5749.1.1 Definition of Cave 5749.1.2 Cave- Forming Processes 5759.1.3 Cave Classifications 5779.1.3.1 Solution Caves 5779.1.3.2 Caves Related to Mechanical Movement and Accumulation 5889.1.3.3 Caves Related to Mechanical Weathering and Erosion 5899.1.3.4 Depositional Caves 5949.1.3.5 Caves Related to Melting 5959.1.3.6 Caves Related to Solidification 5969.2 Macromorphology 5989.2.1 Cave Surveying 5999.2.2 Cave Entrances 6009.2.3 Cave Passages 6039.2.3.1 Shafts 6049.2.3.2 Canyons 6079.2.3.3 Tubes 6099.2.3.4 Fissures 6109.2.3.5 Mixed Phreatic- Vadose Forms 6119.2.3.6 Phantom (Ghost- Rock) Passages 6119.2.4 Cave Rooms 6139.2.5 Cave and Passage Terminations 6149.2.6 Cave Ground Plans 6159.2.7 Cave Profile and Cave Storeys 6189.3 Speleogens: Small- Scale Passage Morphologies 62110 Cave Deposits 65410.1 Introduction 65410.2 Classification of Cave Sediments 65510.3 Clastic Sediments 65710.3.1 The Cave Sedimentary System 65710.3.2 The Origin and Flux of Clastic Sediments in Caves 65710.3.3 Fluvial Erosion and Transport 65910.3.4 The Cave Sedimentary Facies 66110.3.5 Other Allogenic Clastic Sediments 66410.3.6 Provenance of Allogenic Clastic Cave Sediments 66610.3.7 Autogenic Clastic Sediments 66710.3.8 Anthropic Waste 67110.3.9 Sedimentary Structures 67210.4 Organic Sediments 67510.4.1 Vegetal and Animal Debris 67610.4.2 Autogenic Organic Sediments 67810.5 Transported Chemical Deposits 67910.6 Chemical Deposits 67910.6.1 Minerogenetic Mechanisms in Caves 68010.6.2 Carbonates 68310.6.3 Other Cave Minerals 68710.6.3.1 Halides 69010.6.3.2 Sulfates 69010.6.3.3 Phosphates and Nitrates 69310.6.3.4 Oxides and Hydroxides 69410.6.3.5 Silica and Silicates 69610.6.4 Secondary Ice 69610.7 Speleothems 69810.7.1 Speleothems Formed by Dripping and Flowing Water 70210.7.2 Speleothems Formed in Vadose Standing Water Bodies 71210.7.3 Speleothems Formed in Phreatic (Thermal) Water Bodies 71810.7.4 Speleothems Formed by Dominant Evaporation 71810.7.5 Speleothems Formed by Capillary Water 72510.7.6 Speleothems Formed by Microorganisms 72810.7.7 The Color of Speleothems 73110.7.8 Speleothem Growth Rate 73210.7.9 Decay of Speleothems 73310.7.10 Dating Clastic and Chemical Cave Sediments 73610.7.10.1 Radiocarbon 73610.7.10.2 Uranium–Thorium 73810.7.10.3 Uranium- Lead and Other Methods 74010.7.10.4 Aluminum–Beryllium 74110.7.10.5 Potassium–Argon 74210.7.10.6 Electron Spin Resonance, Optically Stimulated Luminescence, and Thermoluminescence 74210.7.10.7 Amino Acid Racemization 74310.7.10.8 Paleomagnetism 74310.7.10.9 Lamina Counting- Fluorescence- Trace Elements 74410.8 Cave Sediments as Paleoclimate and Paleo- Environmental Archives 74511  Speleogenesis: How Solutional Caves Form 76211.1 The Growth of Ideas about Cave Genesis 76211.2 Geological Controls on Cave Genesis in Carbonate Rocks 76511.2.1 Influence of Lithology 76511.2.1.1 Influence of Rock Purity 76511.2.1.2 Influence of Grain Size and Texture 76611.2.1.3 Influence of Matrix Porosity 76611.2.2 Influence of Stratigraphic Position of Soluble Rocks 76611.2.3 Influence of Geological Structures 76811.2.3.1 Influence of Bedding Planes 76911.2.3.2 Influence of Joints 77111.2.3.3 Influence of Faults 77111.2.3.4 Influence of Folds 77211.2.3.5 Inception Horizons 77211.2.4 Topography, Base- Level and Climate 77311.3 Simple Models of Initial Cave Development 77511.3.1 Hardware Models of a Single Input 77611.3.2 Computer Modeling of a Single Fissure 77711.3.3 Hardware Modeling of Multiple Inputs 77911.3.4 Computer Modeling of Two- and Three- Dimensional Fissure Networks 78211.4 Hydrogeological Controls on Cave Genesis 78411.4.1 Multiple- Point Recharge 78511.4.2 Concentrated Recharge 78611.4.3 Diffuse Recharge from Above 79211.4.4 Diffuse Recharge from Below 79411.4.5 Rising Thermal Fluids 79711.4.6 Sulfuric Acid Fluids 80511.4.7 Coastal Mixing 81411.5 Caves in Non- Carbonate Rocks 82311.5.1 Halite Caves 82311.5.2 Gypsum–Anhydrite Caves 82411.5.3 Quartzite Caves 83011.5.4 Iron Formation Caves 83211.6 Condensation–Corrosion 83411.7 A Summary: Life Cycle of Solution Caves 83911.7.1 Initiation of a Cave 83911.7.2 Rapid Cave Enlargement 84011.7.3 Cave Maturation 84111.7.4 Cave Abandonment and Decay 842Index 857

Jo De Waele is Full Professor in the Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences at the University of Bologna, Italy. Francisco Gutiérrez is Full Professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Zaragoza, Spain.

Select Guide Rating

• Preface xiv1 Introduction to Karst 11.1 The Term Karst. Definition and Origin 11.2 Classification of Karst 21.3 Global Distribution of Karst 81.4 Karst Terminology 122 Karst Rocks 152.1 Karst Rocks Within the Rock Classifications 152.2 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals 172.2.1 Carbonate Minerals 202.2.2 Depositional Environments and Components of Marine Limestones 232.2.3 Limestone Classification Schemes 282.2.4 Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy 302.2.5 Limestone Diagenesis 322.2.6 Dolomite and Dolomitization 352.2.7 Terrestrial Carbonates 392.2.8 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks 442.2.9 Other Carbonate Rocks 462.2.9.1 Carbonate Conglomerates and Sandstones 462.2.9.2 Carbonate Breccias 472.2.9.3 Marbles 502.2.9.4 Carbonatites 512.3 Evaporite Rocks and Minerals 522.3.1 Gypsum and Anhydrite 562.3.2 Halite 622.3.3 Other Salts 652.4 Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 673 Dissolution of Karst Rocks 763.1 Introduction 763.2 Basic Concepts and Parameters 803.2.1 Water, an Exceptional Dipolar Molecule and Solvent 803.2.2 Concentration Units and Related Parameters 823.2.3 Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs Free Energy of Reaction 863.2.4 Activity 883.2.5 Saturation Index 893.2.6 pH and the Acidity of Karst Waters 903.3 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters 913.3.1 Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 923.3.2 Carbon Dioxide in Soils 943.3.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide in Water and the Carbonic Acid System 973.3.4 The Dissolution of Calcite and Dolomite 993.3.5 The Solubility of Carbonate Minerals 1013.3.6 Open and Closed CO 2 - Dissolution Systems 1023.4 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks by Sulfuric Acid 1053.5 The Dissolution of Gypsum and Halite 1113.6 The Dissolution of Silica 1153.7 Factors that Influence the Solubility and Saturation State 1173.7.1 Effects Related to Temperature and Pressure Changes 1183.7.2 Common-Ion Effect 1223.7.3 Ionic-Strength Effect 1233.7.4 Ion-Pair Effect 1233.7.5 Water Mixing 1243.7.6 Exotic Inorganic Acids 1273.7.7 Acid Rain 1273.8 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst Minerals 1303.8.1 Dissolution Kinetics of Calcite, Aragonite, and Dolomite 1333.8.2 Dissolution Kinetics of Gypsum and Halite 1413.9 Geological Controls on Karst Development 1433.9.1 Rock Composition and Purity 1433.9.2 Grain Size and Texture 1473.9.3 Porosity 1483.9.4 Bedding Planes and Stratigraphic Contacts 1503.9.5 Joints 1533.9.6 Faults 1593.9.7 Folds 1633.9.8 Interbedded Non- soluble Rocks 1673.10 Biokarst Processes 1693.10.1 Biokarst Processes Associated with the Surface Environment 1703.10.2 Biokarst Processes in Caves 1734 Denudation in Karst. Rates and Spatial Distribution 1954.1 Basic Concepts 1954.2 Controlling Factors and the Influence of Climate 1984.3 Methods for Measuring Denudation Rates and the Carbonate Karst Experience 2034.3.1 Hydrochemical Measurements 2034.3.2 Weight Loss of Standard Tablets 2084.3.3 Micro- erosion Meter 2104.3.4 High- Resolution 3d Surface Models 2114.3.5 Long- term Surface Lowering around Pedestals, Dikes, and Siliceous Nodules 2134.3.6 Long- term Erosion Rates Derived from Cosmogenic Chlorine- 36 in Calcite 2174.4 Denudation Rates in Gypsum and Salt 2194.5 Solutional Denudation of Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 2284.6 Interpretation and Integration of Denudation Rates 2334.6.1 Vertical and Spatial Distribution of Karst Denudation and Deposition 2354.6.2 Long- term Rates of Base- Level Lowering and Downcutting 2425 Karst Hydrogeology 2605.1 Introduction 2605.2 Brief Historical Overview on Karst Hydrogeology (<1900) 2605.3 Definitions 2625.4 Groundwater Flow Fundamentals 2675.4.1 Laminar Flow Through Granular Media 2675.4.2 Turbulent Flow Through Conduits 2695.4.3 Flow Through Fractured Media 2715.5 Groundwater Flow in Karst Aquifers 2715.5.1 The Hydrological and Geological Water Cycle 2725.5.2 The Energy and Forces Involved in Groundwater Flow in Karst 2755.5.3 Inputs 2765.5.4 Outputs 2795.5.5 Throughput 2805.5.6 Lithological and Structural Control on Groundwater Flow 2835.5.7 Karst Groundwater Basins 2875.5.8 Hydrological Role of the Epikarst and the Transmission Zone 2875.5.9 The Water Table in Karst 2895.5.10 Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 2915.6 Analysis of Karst Groundwater Basins 2925.6.1 Defining Karst Aquifers 2925.6.2 Complementary Approaches in Karst Aquifer Studies 2935.6.3 Groundwater Basin Definition and Water Balance 2955.6.4 Precipitation and Recharge 2965.6.5 Flow Measurements 2965.6.6 Boreholes 2995.6.7 Spring Hydrographs and Chemographs 3045.6.8 Water Tracing 3115.6.9 Isotopes 3195.6.10 Remote Sensing and Geophysical Techniques 3225.6.11 Karst Aquifer Modeling 325  6 Karren and Sinkholes 3366.1 Karst. A Special Geomorphic System 3366.2 Karren 3376.2.1 Bare Karren 3416.2.2 Covered Karren 3586.2.3 Bare and Covered Structural Karren 3616.2.4 Coastal Karren 3686.3 Sinkholes (Dolines) 3746.3.1 General Aspects and Classification 3746.3.2 Solution Sinkholes and Polygonal Karst 3806.3.3 Collapse Sinkholes 3876.3.4 Suffosion Sinkholes 4006.3.5 Sagging Sinkholes 4026.3.6 Factors that Control Subsidence Sinkholes and Human-Induced Sinkholes 4076.3.7 Sinkhole Mapping 4166.3.8 Sinkhole Morphometry and Spatial Distribution 4247 Other Karst Landforms 4667.1 Poljes 4667.1.1 General Aspects and Distribution 4667.1.2 Geomorphological, Hydrological and Geological Features of Poljes 4687.1.3 Origin and Classification 4757.2 Corrosion Plains, Rejuvenation, and Submergence 4777.3 Residual Hills. Fenglin and Fengcong 4847.4 Valleys in Karst 4897.4.1 Through Valleys 4907.4.2 Blind Valleys 4937.4.3 Pocket Valleys 4957.4.4 Cave- Collapse Valleys 4957.4.5 Dry Valleys 4977.5 Constructional Features. Calcareous Tufas and Travertines 4988 Special Features Associated with Evaporites 5178.1 Interstratal Evaporite Karst 5198.2 Covered Evaporite Karst 5388.3 Bare Evaporite Karst 5418.4 Salt Tectonics and Karst in Salt Extrusions 5468.4.1 The Special Rheology of Rock Salt. An Exceptional Mobile Bedrock 5468.4.2 Salt Structures and the Geomorphic Impact of Salt Flow 5488.4.3 The Morphological Evolution of Salt Extrusions and the Role of Dissolution 5519 Cave Geomorphology 5749.1 Introduction 5749.1.1 Definition of Cave 5749.1.2 Cave- Forming Processes 5759.1.3 Cave Classifications 5779.1.3.1 Solution Caves 5779.1.3.2 Caves Related to Mechanical Movement and Accumulation 5889.1.3.3 Caves Related to Mechanical Weathering and Erosion 5899.1.3.4 Depositional Caves 5949.1.3.5 Caves Related to Melting 5959.1.3.6 Caves Related to Solidification 5969.2 Macromorphology 5989.2.1 Cave Surveying 5999.2.2 Cave Entrances 6009.2.3 Cave Passages 6039.2.3.1 Shafts 6049.2.3.2 Canyons 6079.2.3.3 Tubes 6099.2.3.4 Fissures 6109.2.3.5 Mixed Phreatic- Vadose Forms 6119.2.3.6 Phantom (Ghost- Rock) Passages 6119.2.4 Cave Rooms 6139.2.5 Cave and Passage Terminations 6149.2.6 Cave Ground Plans 6159.2.7 Cave Profile and Cave Storeys 6189.3 Speleogens: Small- Scale Passage Morphologies 62110 Cave Deposits 65410.1 Introduction 65410.2 Classification of Cave Sediments 65510.3 Clastic Sediments 65710.3.1 The Cave Sedimentary System 65710.3.2 The Origin and Flux of Clastic Sediments in Caves 65710.3.3 Fluvial Erosion and Transport 65910.3.4 The Cave Sedimentary Facies 66110.3.5 Other Allogenic Clastic Sediments 66410.3.6 Provenance of Allogenic Clastic Cave Sediments 66610.3.7 Autogenic Clastic Sediments 66710.3.8 Anthropic Waste 67110.3.9 Sedimentary Structures 67210.4 Organic Sediments 67510.4.1 Vegetal and Animal Debris 67610.4.2 Autogenic Organic Sediments 67810.5 Transported Chemical Deposits 67910.6 Chemical Deposits 67910.6.1 Minerogenetic Mechanisms in Caves 68010.6.2 Carbonates 68310.6.3 Other Cave Minerals 68710.6.3.1 Halides 69010.6.3.2 Sulfates 69010.6.3.3 Phosphates and Nitrates 69310.6.3.4 Oxides and Hydroxides 69410.6.3.5 Silica and Silicates 69610.6.4 Secondary Ice 69610.7 Speleothems 69810.7.1 Speleothems Formed by Dripping and Flowing Water 70210.7.2 Speleothems Formed in Vadose Standing Water Bodies 71210.7.3 Speleothems Formed in Phreatic (Thermal) Water Bodies 71810.7.4 Speleothems Formed by Dominant Evaporation 71810.7.5 Speleothems Formed by Capillary Water 72510.7.6 Speleothems Formed by Microorganisms 72810.7.7 The Color of Speleothems 73110.7.8 Speleothem Growth Rate 73210.7.9 Decay of Speleothems 73310.7.10 Dating Clastic and Chemical Cave Sediments 73610.7.10.1 Radiocarbon 73610.7.10.2 Uranium–Thorium 73810.7.10.3 Uranium- Lead and Other Methods 74010.7.10.4 Aluminum–Beryllium 74110.7.10.5 Potassium–Argon 74210.7.10.6 Electron Spin Resonance, Optically Stimulated Luminescence, and Thermoluminescence 74210.7.10.7 Amino Acid Racemization 74310.7.10.8 Paleomagnetism 74310.7.10.9 Lamina Counting- Fluorescence- Trace Elements 74410.8 Cave Sediments as Paleoclimate and Paleo- Environmental Archives 74511  Speleogenesis: How Solutional Caves Form 76211.1 The Growth of Ideas about Cave Genesis 76211.2 Geological Controls on Cave Genesis in Carbonate Rocks 76511.2.1 Influence of Lithology 76511.2.1.1 Influence of Rock Purity 76511.2.1.2 Influence of Grain Size and Texture 76611.2.1.3 Influence of Matrix Porosity 76611.2.2 Influence of Stratigraphic Position of Soluble Rocks 76611.2.3 Influence of Geological Structures 76811.2.3.1 Influence of Bedding Planes 76911.2.3.2 Influence of Joints 77111.2.3.3 Influence of Faults 77111.2.3.4 Influence of Folds 77211.2.3.5 Inception Horizons 77211.2.4 Topography, Base- Level and Climate 77311.3 Simple Models of Initial Cave Development 77511.3.1 Hardware Models of a Single Input 77611.3.2 Computer Modeling of a Single Fissure 77711.3.3 Hardware Modeling of Multiple Inputs 77911.3.4 Computer Modeling of Two- and Three- Dimensional Fissure Networks 78211.4 Hydrogeological Controls on Cave Genesis 78411.4.1 Multiple- Point Recharge 78511.4.2 Concentrated Recharge 78611.4.3 Diffuse Recharge from Above 79211.4.4 Diffuse Recharge from Below 79411.4.5 Rising Thermal Fluids 79711.4.6 Sulfuric Acid Fluids 80511.4.7 Coastal Mixing 81411.5 Caves in Non- Carbonate Rocks 82311.5.1 Halite Caves 82311.5.2 Gypsum–Anhydrite Caves 82411.5.3 Quartzite Caves 83011.5.4 Iron Formation Caves 83211.6 Condensation–Corrosion 83411.7 A Summary: Life Cycle of Solution Caves 83911.7.1 Initiation of a Cave 83911.7.2 Rapid Cave Enlargement 84011.7.3 Cave Maturation 84111.7.4 Cave Abandonment and Decay 842Index 857