The Waterfront Structures Committee has been working on a voluntary basis since 1949 as a committee of the Hamburg-based Hafenbautechnische Gesellschaft e.V. (HTG, German Port Technology Association) and, since 1951, concurrently as Study Group 2.2 of the Essen-based Deutsche Gesellschaft für Geotechnik e.V. (DGGT, German Geotechnical Society). The full title of the committee translates as Committee for the Simplification and Standardisation of the Design and Configuration of Waterfront Structures.

• Preface xv1 Safety and verification concept 11.1 Principles of the safety and verification concept for waterfront structures 11.1.1 General 11.1.2 Normative regulations for waterfront structures 11.1.3 Geotechnical categories 31.1.4 Design situations 31.2 Verification for waterfront structures 41.2.1 Principles for verification 41.2.2 Design approaches 41.2.3 Analysis of the serviceability limit state 51.2.4 Analysis of the ultimate limit state 6References 102 Ship dimensions 112.1 Sea-going ships 112.1.1 Passenger ships and cruise liners 122.1.2 Bulk carriers 122.1.3 General cargo ships 122.1.4 Container ships 132.1.5 Ferries 132.1.6 RoRo/ConRo vessels 132.1.7 Oil tankers 142.1.8 Gas tankers 152.2 Inland waterway vessels 152.3 Offshore installation vessels 193 Geotechnical principles 213.1 Geotechnical report 213.2 Subsoil 213.2.1 Mean characteristic values of soil parameters 213.2.2 Layout and depths of boreholes and penetrometer tests 273.2.3 Determining the shear strength cu of saturated, undrained cohesive soils 283.2.4 Assessing the subsoil for the installation of piles and sheet piles and for selecting the installation method 313.2.5 Classifying the subsoil in homogeneous zones 343.3 Water pressure 353.3.1 General 353.3.2 Resultant water pressure in the direction of the water side 363.3.3 Resultant water pressure on quay walls in front of embankments with elevated platforms in tidal areas 383.3.4 Taking account of groundwater flow 393.4 Hydraulic heave failure 453.5 Earth pressure 493.5.1 General 493.5.2 Considering the cohesion in cohesive soils 493.5.3 Considering the apparent cohesion (capillary cohesion) in sand 493.5.4 Determining active earth pressure for a steep, paved embankment in a partially sloping waterfront structure 493.5.5 Determining the active earth pressure shielding on a wall below a relieving platform with average ground surcharges 503.5.6 Earth pressure distribution under limited loads 523.5.7 Determining active earth pressure in saturated, non-consolidated or partially consolidated, soft cohesive soils 533.5.8 Effect of water pressure difference beneath beds of watercourses 563.5.9 Considering active earth pressure and resultant water pressure, and construction guidance for waterfront structures with soil replacement and a contaminated or disturbed base of excavation 573.5.10 Effect of groundwater flow on resultant water pressure and active and passive earth pressures 603.5.11 Determining the amount of displacement required to mobilise passive earth pressure in non-cohesive soils 623.5.12 Measures for increasing the passive earth pressure in front of waterfront structures 633.5.13 Passive earth pressure in front of abrupt changes in ground level in soft cohesive soils with rapid load application on the land side 653.5.14 Waterfront structures in seismic regions 65References 694 Loads on waterfront structures 734.1 Vessel berthing velocities and pressures 734.1.1 Guide values 734.1.2 Loads on waterfront structures due to fender reaction forces 744.2 Vertical imposed loads 744.2.1 General 744.2.2 Basic situation 1 764.2.3 Basic situation 2 764.2.4 Basic situation 3 764.2.5 Loading assumptions for quay surfaces 764.3 Sea state and wave pressure 774.3.1 General 774.3.2 Description of the sea state 774.3.3 Determining the sea state parameters 784.3.4 Design concepts and specification of design parameters 824.3.5 Conversion of the sea state 834.3.6 Wave pressure on vertical quay walls in coastal areas 854.4 Effects of waves due to ship movements 904.4.1 General 904.4.2 Wave heights 914.5 Choosing a greater design depth (allowance for scouring) 944.6 Loads arising from surging and receding waves due to the inflow or outflow of water 944.6.1 General 944.6.2 Determining wave values 944.6.3 Loading assumptions 954.7 Wave pressure on piled structures 964.7.1 General 964.7.2 Method of calculation according to Morison et al. (1950) 984.7.3 Determining the wave loads on a single vertical pile 984.7.4 coefficients c d and c m 1004.7.5 Forces from breaking waves 1004.7.6 Wave load on a group of piles 1014.7.7 Raking piles 1014.7.8 Safety factors 1024.7.9 Vertical wave load (“wave slamming”) 1034.8 Moored ships and their influence on the design of mooring equipment and fenders 1064.8.1 General 1064.8.2 Critical wind speed 1084.8.3 Wind loads on moored vessels 1084.8.4 Loads on mooring equipment and fenders 1104.9 Loads on bollards 1104.9.1 Loads on bollards for sea-going vessels 1104.9.2 Loads on bollards for inland waterway vessels 1124.9.3 Direction of line pull load 1134.9.4 Design for line pull loads 1134.10 Quay loads from cranes and other transhipment equipment 1134.10.1 Conventional general cargo cranes 1134.10.2 Container cranes 1134.10.3 Load specifications for port cranes 1154.10.4 Notes 1164.11 Impact and pressure of ice on waterfront structures, fenders and dolphins in coastal areas 1164.11.1 General 1164.11.2 Determining the compressive strength of ice 1174.11.3 Ice loads on waterfront structures and other structures of greater extent 1184.11.4 Ice loads on vertical piles 1214.11.5 Horizontal ice load on a group of piles 1214.11.6 Ice surcharges 1224.11.7 Vertical loads with rising or falling water levels 1224.12 Impact and pressure of ice on waterfront structures, piers and dolphins at inland facilities 1234.12.1 General 1234.12.2 Ice thickness 1234.12.3 Compressive strength of the ice 1244.12.4 Ice loads on waterfront structures and other structures of greater extent 1244.12.5 Ice loads on narrow structures (piles, dolphins, bridge and weir piers and ice deflectors) 1254.12.6 Ice loads on groups of structures 1254.12.7 Vertical loads with rising or falling water levels 126References 1265 Earthworks and dredging 1315.1 Dredging in front of quay walls in seaports 1315.2 Dredging and hydraulic fill tolerances 1325.2.1 General 1325.2.2 Dredging tolerances 1335.3 Hydraulic filling of port areas for planned waterfront structures 1355.3.1 General 1355.3.2 Hydraulic filling of port above the water table 1365.3.3 Hydraulic filling of port areas below the water table 1375.4 Backfilling of waterfront structures 1395.4.1 General 1395.4.2 Backfilling in the dry 1405.4.3 Backfilling underwater 1405.4.4 Additional remarks 1415.5 In situ density of hydraulically filled non-cohesive soils 1415.5.1 General 1415.5.2 Empirical values for in situ density 1415.5.3 In situ density required for port areas 1425.5.4 Checking the in situ density 1425.6 In situ density of dumped non-cohesive soils 1425.6.1 General 1425.6.2 Influences on the achievable in situ density 1435.7 Dredging underwater slopes 1445.7.1 General 1445.7.2 Dredging underwater slopes in loose sand 1445.7.3 Dredging equipment 1445.7.4 Execution of dredging work 1455.8 Subsidence of non-cohesive soils 1465.9 Soil replacement along a line of piles for a waterfront structure 1475.9.1 General 1475.9.2 Dredging 1485.9.3 Cleaning the base of the excavation before filling it with sand 1495.9.4 Placing the sand fill 1505.9.5 Checking the sand fill 1505.10 Dynamic compaction of the soil 1515.11 Vertical drains to accelerate the consolidation of soft cohesive soils 1515.11.1 General 1515.11.2 Applications 1525.11.3 Design 1525.11.4 Design of plastic drains 1535.11.5 Installation 1545.12 Consolidation of soft cohesive soils by preloading 1545.12.1 General 1545.12.2 Applications 1545.12.3 Bearing capacity of in situ soil 1555.12.4 Fill material 1565.12.5 Determining the depth of preload fill 1565.12.6 Minimum extent of preload fill 1585.12.7 Soil improvement through vacuum consolidation with vertical drains 1585.12.8 Execution of soil improvement through vacuum consolidation with vertical drains 1595.12.9 Checking the consolidation 1595.12.10 Secondary settlement 1595.13 Improving the bearing capacity of soft cohesive soils with vertical elements 1605.13.1 General 1605.13.2 Methods 1605.13.3 Construction of pile-type load-bearing elements 162References 1636 Protection and stabilisation structures 1656.1 Bank and bottom protection 1656.1.1 Embankment stabilisation on inland waterways 1656.1.2 Slopes in seaports and tidal inland ports 1706.1.3 Use of geotextile filters in bank and bottom protection 1746.1.4 Scour and protection against scour in front of waterfront structures 1766.1.5 Scour protection at piers and dolphins 1856.1.6 Installation of mineral impervious linings underwater and their connection to waterfront structures 1856.2 Flood defence walls in seaports 1876.2.1 General 1876.2.2 Critical water levels 1876.2.3 Excess water pressure and unit weight of soil 1886.2.4 Minimum embedment depths for flood defence walls 1896.2.5 Special loads on flood defence walls 1896.2.6 Guidance on designing flood defence walls in slopes 1906.2.7 Structural measures 1906.2.8 Buried utilities in the region of flood defence walls 1916.3 Rouble mound moles and breakwaters 1916.3.1 General 1916.3.2 Stability analyses, settlement and subsidence and guidance on construction 1926.3.3 Specifying the geometry of the structure 1926.3.4 Designing the armour layer 1946.3.5 Construction of breakwaters 1986.3.6 Construction and use of equipment 1986.3.7 Settlement and subsidence 2016.3.8 Invoicing for installed quantities 201References 2017 Configuration of cross-sections and equipment for waterfront structures 2057.1 Configuration of cross-sections 2057.1.1 Standard cross-sectional dimensions for waterfront structures in seaports 2057.1.2 Top edges of waterfront structures in seaports 2077.1.3 Standard cross-sections for waterfront structures in inland ports 2087.1.4 Upgrading partially sloped waterfronts in inland ports with large water level fluctuations 2127.1.5 Design of waterfront areas in inland ports according to operational aspects 2147.1.6 Nominal depth and design depth of the harbour bottom 2157.1.7 Strengthening waterfront structures for deepening harbour bottoms in seaports 2177.1.8 Embankments below waterfront wall superstructures behind closed sheet pile walls 2217.1.9 Re-design of waterfront structures in inland ports 2217.1.10 Waterfront structures in regions with mining subsidence 2247.2 Equipment 2277.2.1 Provision of quick-release hooks at berths for large vessels 2277.2.2 Layout and design of and loads on access ladders 2277.2.3 Layout and design of stairs in seaports 2307.2.4 Armoured steel sheet pile walls 2317.2.5 Equipment for waterfront structures in seaports with supply and disposal systems 2357.2.6 Layout of bollards 2417.2.7 Foundations to craneways on waterfront structures 2437.2.8 Fixing crane rails to concrete 2457.2.9 Connection of expansion joints seal in reinforced concrete bottoms to load-bearing steel sheet pile walls 2517.2.10 Connection of steel sheet piles to a concrete structure 2527.2.11 Steel capping beams for sheet pile waterfront structures 2547.2.12 Reinforced concrete capping beams for waterfront structures with steel sheet piles 2577.2.13 Steel nosings to protect reinforced concrete walls and capping beams on waterfront structures 2617.2.14 Floating berths in seaports 2637.3 Drainage 2657.3.1 Design of weepholes for sheet pile structures 2657.3.2 Design of drainage systems for waterfront structures in tidal areas 2667.4 Fenders 2687.4.1 Fenders for large vessels 2687.4.2 Fenders in inland ports 2837.5 Offshore energy support bases 2847.5.1 General 2847.5.2 Basis for design 2847.5.3 Nautical requirements 2857.5.4 Calculating the leg penetration of WTIVs 2887.5.5 Maintaining and monitoring the jacking surfaces 2917.5.6 Logistical requirements 2927.6 RoRo berths 2987.6.1 General 2987.6.2 Loading assumptions for RoRo terminals 2997.6.3 Kinematics 3017.6.4 Classification of ship-to-shore facilities 3037.6.5 Facilities and equipment on the land side 3087.7 Jetties 3127.7.1 Introduction 3127.7.2 Design of jetties 3137.7.3 Design of berthing and mooring facilities (ship-to-shore) 3157.7.4 Structural elements of berths 3177.7.5 Interaction between load-bearing structure and installations on deck 320References 3228 Sheet pile walls 3258.1 Materials and construction 3258.1.1 Materials for sheet pile walls 3258.1.2 Steel sheet pile walls – properties and forms 3268.1.3 Watertightness of steel sheet pile walls 3408.1.4 Welding steel sheet pile walls 3428.1.5 Installation of steel sheet pile walls 3468.1.6 Driving assistance 3668.1.7 Monitoring pile driving operations 3718.1.8 Repairing interlock declutching on driven steel sheet piling 3738.1.9 Noise control – low-noise driving 3778.1.10 Corrosion of steel sheet piling, and countermeasures 3818.1.11 Risk of sand grinding on sheet piling 3878.2 Design of sheet pile walls 3878.2.1 General 3878.2.2 Free-standing/cantilever sheet pile walls 3918.2.3 Design of sheet pile walls with fixity in the ground and a single row of anchors 3928.2.4 Design of sheet pile walls with a double row of anchors 3968.2.5 Applying the angle of earth pressure and the analysis in the vertical direction 3978.2.6 Taking account of unfavourable groundwater flows in the passive earth pressure zone 4078.2.7 Verifying the load-bearing capacity of a quay wall 4078.2.8 Selection of embedment depth for sheet piles 4108.2.9 Determining the embedment depth for sheet pile walls with full or partial fixity in the soil 4108.2.10 Steel sheet pile walls with staggered embedment depths 4138.2.11 Horizontal actions on steel sheet pile walls in the longitudinal direction of the quay 4158.2.12 Design of anchor walls fixed in the ground 4188.2.13 Staggered arrangement of anchor walls 4198.2.14 Waterfront sheet pile walls in unconsolidated, soft cohesive soils, especially in connection with non-sway structures 4198.2.15 Design of single-anchor sheet pile walls in seismic zones 4208.2.16 Sheet pile waterfronts on inland waterways 4218.2.17 Calculation and design of cofferdams 422References 4329 Anchorages 4359.1 Piles and anchors 4359.1.1 General 4359.1.2 Displacement piles 4359.1.3 Load-bearing capacity of displacement piles 4379.1.4 Micropiles 4389.1.5 Special piles 4399.1.6 Anchors 4399.2 Walings and pile and anchor connections 4469.2.1 Design of steel walings for sheet piling 4469.2.2 Verification of steel walings 4479.2.3 Reinforced concrete walings to sheet pile walls with driven steel piles 4489.2.4 Auxiliary anchors at the top of steel sheet piling structures 4509.2.5 Sheet piling anchors in unconsolidated, soft cohesive soils 4519.2.6 Design of protruding quay wall corners with round steel tie rods 4549.2.7 Configuration and design of protruding quay wall corners with raking anchor piles 4569.2.8 Prestressing of high-strength steel anchors for waterfront structures 4589.2.9 Hinged connections between driven steel piles and steel sheet piling structures 4609.3 Verification of stability for anchoring at the lower failure plane 4699.3.1 Stability at the lower failure plane for anchorages with anchor walls 4699.3.2 Stability at the lower failure plane in unconsolidated, saturated cohesive soils 4719.3.3 Stability at the lower failure plane with varying soil strata 4719.3.4 Verification of stability at the lower failure for a quay wall fixed in the soil 4729.3.5 Stability at the lower failure plane for an anchor wall fixed in the soil 4729.3.6 Stability at the lower failure plane for anchors with anchor plates 4729.3.7 Verification of safety against failure of anchoring soil 4729.3.8 Stability at the lower failure plane for quay walls anchored with piles or grouted anchors at one level 4739.3.9 Stability at the lower failure plane for quay walls with anchors at more than one level 4749.3.10 Safety against slope failure 475References 47610 Quay walls and superstructures in concrete 48110.1 General 48110.2 Construction materials 48210.2.1 Concrete 48210.2.2 Steel reinforcement 48410.3 Design and construction 48410.3.1 Construction joints 48410.3.2 Expansion joints 48510.3.3 Jointless construction 48510.3.4 Crack width limitation 48510.4 Forms of construction 48610.4.1 Concrete walls 48610.4.2 Retaining walls 48810.4.3 Block-type construction 48810.4.4 Box caissons 49110.4.5 Open caissons 492References 49611 Pile bents and trestles 49911.1 General 49911.2 Configuration and design of a pile bent 49911.2.1 General 49911.2.2 Earth pressure loads 50011.2.3 Load due to excess water pressure 50111.2.4 Load path for piles 50211.3 Design of pile trestles 50311.3.1 Free-standing pile trestles 50311.3.2 Special structures designed as pile trestles 50511.3.3 Structural system and calculations 50511.3.4 Construction guidance 50611.4 Design of pile bents and trestles in earthquake zones 50711.4.1 General 50711.4.2 Active and passive earth pressures, excess water pressure, variable loads 50711.4.3 Resisting the horizontal inertial forces of the superstructure 507References 50812 Dolphins 50912.1 Design and construction 50912.1.1 Dolphins – purposes and types 50912.1.2 Layout of dolphins 50912.1.3 Equipment for dolphins 51012.1.4 Advice for selecting materials 51112.2 Detailed design 51212.2.1 Stiffness of the system 51212.2.2 Structural behaviour 51212.2.3 Actions 51312.2.4 Safety concept 51512.2.5 Soil—structure interaction and the resulting design variables 51512.2.6 The required energy absorption capacity of breasting dolphins 52012.2.7 Other calculations 521References 52213 Operation, maintenance and repair of waterfront structures 52513.1 Operation of waterfront structures 52513.1.1 General 52513.1.2 Building information modelling (BIM) 52513.2 Inspecting waterfront structures 52613.2.1 Documentation 52713.2.2 Structural inspections 52813.2.3 Inspection intervals 52913.2.4 Structural monitoring supported by measurements 53013.3 Assessing the load-bearing capacity of an existing waterfront structure 53113.4 Repairing concrete waterfront structures 53313.5 Upgrading and deconstructing existing waterfront structures 53313.5.1 Upgrading measures 53313.5.2 Deconstruction in conjunction with replacement measures 535References 535Appendix A Notation 537A. 1 Symbols for variables 538A.. 1 Latin lower-case letters 538A.1. 2 Latin upper-case letters 540A.1. 3 Greek letters 542A. 2 Subscripts and indices 543A. 3 Abbreviations 544A. 4 Water levels and wave heights 545List of Advertisers 547

The Waterfront Structures Committee has been working on a voluntary basis since 1949 as a committee of the Hamburg-based Hafenbautechnische Gesellschaft e.V. (HTG, German Port Technology Association) and, since 1951, concurrently as Study Group 2.2 of the Essen-based Deutsche Gesellschaft für Geotechnik e.V. (DGGT, German Geotechnical Society). The full title of the committee translates as Committee for the Simplification and Standardisation of the Design and Configuration of Waterfront Structures.

• Preface xv1 Safety and verification concept 11.1 Principles of the safety and verification concept for waterfront structures 11.1.1 General 11.1.2 Normative regulations for waterfront structures 11.1.3 Geotechnical categories 31.1.4 Design situations 31.2 Verification for waterfront structures 41.2.1 Principles for verification 41.2.2 Design approaches 41.2.3 Analysis of the serviceability limit state 51.2.4 Analysis of the ultimate limit state 6References 102 Ship dimensions 112.1 Sea-going ships 112.1.1 Passenger ships and cruise liners 122.1.2 Bulk carriers 122.1.3 General cargo ships 122.1.4 Container ships 132.1.5 Ferries 132.1.6 RoRo/ConRo vessels 132.1.7 Oil tankers 142.1.8 Gas tankers 152.2 Inland waterway vessels 152.3 Offshore installation vessels 193 Geotechnical principles 213.1 Geotechnical report 213.2 Subsoil 213.2.1 Mean characteristic values of soil parameters 213.2.2 Layout and depths of boreholes and penetrometer tests 273.2.3 Determining the shear strength cu of saturated, undrained cohesive soils 283.2.4 Assessing the subsoil for the installation of piles and sheet piles and for selecting the installation method 313.2.5 Classifying the subsoil in homogeneous zones 343.3 Water pressure 353.3.1 General 353.3.2 Resultant water pressure in the direction of the water side 363.3.3 Resultant water pressure on quay walls in front of embankments with elevated platforms in tidal areas 383.3.4 Taking account of groundwater flow 393.4 Hydraulic heave failure 453.5 Earth pressure 493.5.1 General 493.5.2 Considering the cohesion in cohesive soils 493.5.3 Considering the apparent cohesion (capillary cohesion) in sand 493.5.4 Determining active earth pressure for a steep, paved embankment in a partially sloping waterfront structure 493.5.5 Determining the active earth pressure shielding on a wall below a relieving platform with average ground surcharges 503.5.6 Earth pressure distribution under limited loads 523.5.7 Determining active earth pressure in saturated, non-consolidated or partially consolidated, soft cohesive soils 533.5.8 Effect of water pressure difference beneath beds of watercourses 563.5.9 Considering active earth pressure and resultant water pressure, and construction guidance for waterfront structures with soil replacement and a contaminated or disturbed base of excavation 573.5.10 Effect of groundwater flow on resultant water pressure and active and passive earth pressures 603.5.11 Determining the amount of displacement required to mobilise passive earth pressure in non-cohesive soils 623.5.12 Measures for increasing the passive earth pressure in front of waterfront structures 633.5.13 Passive earth pressure in front of abrupt changes in ground level in soft cohesive soils with rapid load application on the land side 653.5.14 Waterfront structures in seismic regions 65References 694 Loads on waterfront structures 734.1 Vessel berthing velocities and pressures 734.1.1 Guide values 734.1.2 Loads on waterfront structures due to fender reaction forces 744.2 Vertical imposed loads 744.2.1 General 744.2.2 Basic situation 1 764.2.3 Basic situation 2 764.2.4 Basic situation 3 764.2.5 Loading assumptions for quay surfaces 764.3 Sea state and wave pressure 774.3.1 General 774.3.2 Description of the sea state 774.3.3 Determining the sea state parameters 784.3.4 Design concepts and specification of design parameters 824.3.5 Conversion of the sea state 834.3.6 Wave pressure on vertical quay walls in coastal areas 854.4 Effects of waves due to ship movements 904.4.1 General 904.4.2 Wave heights 914.5 Choosing a greater design depth (allowance for scouring) 944.6 Loads arising from surging and receding waves due to the inflow or outflow of water 944.6.1 General 944.6.2 Determining wave values 944.6.3 Loading assumptions 954.7 Wave pressure on piled structures 964.7.1 General 964.7.2 Method of calculation according to Morison et al. (1950) 984.7.3 Determining the wave loads on a single vertical pile 984.7.4 coefficients c d and c m 1004.7.5 Forces from breaking waves 1004.7.6 Wave load on a group of piles 1014.7.7 Raking piles 1014.7.8 Safety factors 1024.7.9 Vertical wave load (“wave slamming”) 1034.8 Moored ships and their influence on the design of mooring equipment and fenders 1064.8.1 General 1064.8.2 Critical wind speed 1084.8.3 Wind loads on moored vessels 1084.8.4 Loads on mooring equipment and fenders 1104.9 Loads on bollards 1104.9.1 Loads on bollards for sea-going vessels 1104.9.2 Loads on bollards for inland waterway vessels 1124.9.3 Direction of line pull load 1134.9.4 Design for line pull loads 1134.10 Quay loads from cranes and other transhipment equipment 1134.10.1 Conventional general cargo cranes 1134.10.2 Container cranes 1134.10.3 Load specifications for port cranes 1154.10.4 Notes 1164.11 Impact and pressure of ice on waterfront structures, fenders and dolphins in coastal areas 1164.11.1 General 1164.11.2 Determining the compressive strength of ice 1174.11.3 Ice loads on waterfront structures and other structures of greater extent 1184.11.4 Ice loads on vertical piles 1214.11.5 Horizontal ice load on a group of piles 1214.11.6 Ice surcharges 1224.11.7 Vertical loads with rising or falling water levels 1224.12 Impact and pressure of ice on waterfront structures, piers and dolphins at inland facilities 1234.12.1 General 1234.12.2 Ice thickness 1234.12.3 Compressive strength of the ice 1244.12.4 Ice loads on waterfront structures and other structures of greater extent 1244.12.5 Ice loads on narrow structures (piles, dolphins, bridge and weir piers and ice deflectors) 1254.12.6 Ice loads on groups of structures 1254.12.7 Vertical loads with rising or falling water levels 126References 1265 Earthworks and dredging 1315.1 Dredging in front of quay walls in seaports 1315.2 Dredging and hydraulic fill tolerances 1325.2.1 General 1325.2.2 Dredging tolerances 1335.3 Hydraulic filling of port areas for planned waterfront structures 1355.3.1 General 1355.3.2 Hydraulic filling of port above the water table 1365.3.3 Hydraulic filling of port areas below the water table 1375.4 Backfilling of waterfront structures 1395.4.1 General 1395.4.2 Backfilling in the dry 1405.4.3 Backfilling underwater 1405.4.4 Additional remarks 1415.5 In situ density of hydraulically filled non-cohesive soils 1415.5.1 General 1415.5.2 Empirical values for in situ density 1415.5.3 In situ density required for port areas 1425.5.4 Checking the in situ density 1425.6 In situ density of dumped non-cohesive soils 1425.6.1 General 1425.6.2 Influences on the achievable in situ density 1435.7 Dredging underwater slopes 1445.7.1 General 1445.7.2 Dredging underwater slopes in loose sand 1445.7.3 Dredging equipment 1445.7.4 Execution of dredging work 1455.8 Subsidence of non-cohesive soils 1465.9 Soil replacement along a line of piles for a waterfront structure 1475.9.1 General 1475.9.2 Dredging 1485.9.3 Cleaning the base of the excavation before filling it with sand 1495.9.4 Placing the sand fill 1505.9.5 Checking the sand fill 1505.10 Dynamic compaction of the soil 1515.11 Vertical drains to accelerate the consolidation of soft cohesive soils 1515.11.1 General 1515.11.2 Applications 1525.11.3 Design 1525.11.4 Design of plastic drains 1535.11.5 Installation 1545.12 Consolidation of soft cohesive soils by preloading 1545.12.1 General 1545.12.2 Applications 1545.12.3 Bearing capacity of in situ soil 1555.12.4 Fill material 1565.12.5 Determining the depth of preload fill 1565.12.6 Minimum extent of preload fill 1585.12.7 Soil improvement through vacuum consolidation with vertical drains 1585.12.8 Execution of soil improvement through vacuum consolidation with vertical drains 1595.12.9 Checking the consolidation 1595.12.10 Secondary settlement 1595.13 Improving the bearing capacity of soft cohesive soils with vertical elements 1605.13.1 General 1605.13.2 Methods 1605.13.3 Construction of pile-type load-bearing elements 162References 1636 Protection and stabilisation structures 1656.1 Bank and bottom protection 1656.1.1 Embankment stabilisation on inland waterways 1656.1.2 Slopes in seaports and tidal inland ports 1706.1.3 Use of geotextile filters in bank and bottom protection 1746.1.4 Scour and protection against scour in front of waterfront structures 1766.1.5 Scour protection at piers and dolphins 1856.1.6 Installation of mineral impervious linings underwater and their connection to waterfront structures 1856.2 Flood defence walls in seaports 1876.2.1 General 1876.2.2 Critical water levels 1876.2.3 Excess water pressure and unit weight of soil 1886.2.4 Minimum embedment depths for flood defence walls 1896.2.5 Special loads on flood defence walls 1896.2.6 Guidance on designing flood defence walls in slopes 1906.2.7 Structural measures 1906.2.8 Buried utilities in the region of flood defence walls 1916.3 Rouble mound moles and breakwaters 1916.3.1 General 1916.3.2 Stability analyses, settlement and subsidence and guidance on construction 1926.3.3 Specifying the geometry of the structure 1926.3.4 Designing the armour layer 1946.3.5 Construction of breakwaters 1986.3.6 Construction and use of equipment 1986.3.7 Settlement and subsidence 2016.3.8 Invoicing for installed quantities 201References 2017 Configuration of cross-sections and equipment for waterfront structures 2057.1 Configuration of cross-sections 2057.1.1 Standard cross-sectional dimensions for waterfront structures in seaports 2057.1.2 Top edges of waterfront structures in seaports 2077.1.3 Standard cross-sections for waterfront structures in inland ports 2087.1.4 Upgrading partially sloped waterfronts in inland ports with large water level fluctuations 2127.1.5 Design of waterfront areas in inland ports according to operational aspects 2147.1.6 Nominal depth and design depth of the harbour bottom 2157.1.7 Strengthening waterfront structures for deepening harbour bottoms in seaports 2177.1.8 Embankments below waterfront wall superstructures behind closed sheet pile walls 2217.1.9 Re-design of waterfront structures in inland ports 2217.1.10 Waterfront structures in regions with mining subsidence 2247.2 Equipment 2277.2.1 Provision of quick-release hooks at berths for large vessels 2277.2.2 Layout and design of and loads on access ladders 2277.2.3 Layout and design of stairs in seaports 2307.2.4 Armoured steel sheet pile walls 2317.2.5 Equipment for waterfront structures in seaports with supply and disposal systems 2357.2.6 Layout of bollards 2417.2.7 Foundations to craneways on waterfront structures 2437.2.8 Fixing crane rails to concrete 2457.2.9 Connection of expansion joints seal in reinforced concrete bottoms to load-bearing steel sheet pile walls 2517.2.10 Connection of steel sheet piles to a concrete structure 2527.2.11 Steel capping beams for sheet pile waterfront structures 2547.2.12 Reinforced concrete capping beams for waterfront structures with steel sheet piles 2577.2.13 Steel nosings to protect reinforced concrete walls and capping beams on waterfront structures 2617.2.14 Floating berths in seaports 2637.3 Drainage 2657.3.1 Design of weepholes for sheet pile structures 2657.3.2 Design of drainage systems for waterfront structures in tidal areas 2667.4 Fenders 2687.4.1 Fenders for large vessels 2687.4.2 Fenders in inland ports 2837.5 Offshore energy support bases 2847.5.1 General 2847.5.2 Basis for design 2847.5.3 Nautical requirements 2857.5.4 Calculating the leg penetration of WTIVs 2887.5.5 Maintaining and monitoring the jacking surfaces 2917.5.6 Logistical requirements 2927.6 RoRo berths 2987.6.1 General 2987.6.2 Loading assumptions for RoRo terminals 2997.6.3 Kinematics 3017.6.4 Classification of ship-to-shore facilities 3037.6.5 Facilities and equipment on the land side 3087.7 Jetties 3127.7.1 Introduction 3127.7.2 Design of jetties 3137.7.3 Design of berthing and mooring facilities (ship-to-shore) 3157.7.4 Structural elements of berths 3177.7.5 Interaction between load-bearing structure and installations on deck 320References 3228 Sheet pile walls 3258.1 Materials and construction 3258.1.1 Materials for sheet pile walls 3258.1.2 Steel sheet pile walls – properties and forms 3268.1.3 Watertightness of steel sheet pile walls 3408.1.4 Welding steel sheet pile walls 3428.1.5 Installation of steel sheet pile walls 3468.1.6 Driving assistance 3668.1.7 Monitoring pile driving operations 3718.1.8 Repairing interlock declutching on driven steel sheet piling 3738.1.9 Noise control – low-noise driving 3778.1.10 Corrosion of steel sheet piling, and countermeasures 3818.1.11 Risk of sand grinding on sheet piling 3878.2 Design of sheet pile walls 3878.2.1 General 3878.2.2 Free-standing/cantilever sheet pile walls 3918.2.3 Design of sheet pile walls with fixity in the ground and a single row of anchors 3928.2.4 Design of sheet pile walls with a double row of anchors 3968.2.5 Applying the angle of earth pressure and the analysis in the vertical direction 3978.2.6 Taking account of unfavourable groundwater flows in the passive earth pressure zone 4078.2.7 Verifying the load-bearing capacity of a quay wall 4078.2.8 Selection of embedment depth for sheet piles 4108.2.9 Determining the embedment depth for sheet pile walls with full or partial fixity in the soil 4108.2.10 Steel sheet pile walls with staggered embedment depths 4138.2.11 Horizontal actions on steel sheet pile walls in the longitudinal direction of the quay 4158.2.12 Design of anchor walls fixed in the ground 4188.2.13 Staggered arrangement of anchor walls 4198.2.14 Waterfront sheet pile walls in unconsolidated, soft cohesive soils, especially in connection with non-sway structures 4198.2.15 Design of single-anchor sheet pile walls in seismic zones 4208.2.16 Sheet pile waterfronts on inland waterways 4218.2.17 Calculation and design of cofferdams 422References 4329 Anchorages 4359.1 Piles and anchors 4359.1.1 General 4359.1.2 Displacement piles 4359.1.3 Load-bearing capacity of displacement piles 4379.1.4 Micropiles 4389.1.5 Special piles 4399.1.6 Anchors 4399.2 Walings and pile and anchor connections 4469.2.1 Design of steel walings for sheet piling 4469.2.2 Verification of steel walings 4479.2.3 Reinforced concrete walings to sheet pile walls with driven steel piles 4489.2.4 Auxiliary anchors at the top of steel sheet piling structures 4509.2.5 Sheet piling anchors in unconsolidated, soft cohesive soils 4519.2.6 Design of protruding quay wall corners with round steel tie rods 4549.2.7 Configuration and design of protruding quay wall corners with raking anchor piles 4569.2.8 Prestressing of high-strength steel anchors for waterfront structures 4589.2.9 Hinged connections between driven steel piles and steel sheet piling structures 4609.3 Verification of stability for anchoring at the lower failure plane 4699.3.1 Stability at the lower failure plane for anchorages with anchor walls 4699.3.2 Stability at the lower failure plane in unconsolidated, saturated cohesive soils 4719.3.3 Stability at the lower failure plane with varying soil strata 4719.3.4 Verification of stability at the lower failure for a quay wall fixed in the soil 4729.3.5 Stability at the lower failure plane for an anchor wall fixed in the soil 4729.3.6 Stability at the lower failure plane for anchors with anchor plates 4729.3.7 Verification of safety against failure of anchoring soil 4729.3.8 Stability at the lower failure plane for quay walls anchored with piles or grouted anchors at one level 4739.3.9 Stability at the lower failure plane for quay walls with anchors at more than one level 4749.3.10 Safety against slope failure 475References 47610 Quay walls and superstructures in concrete 48110.1 General 48110.2 Construction materials 48210.2.1 Concrete 48210.2.2 Steel reinforcement 48410.3 Design and construction 48410.3.1 Construction joints 48410.3.2 Expansion joints 48510.3.3 Jointless construction 48510.3.4 Crack width limitation 48510.4 Forms of construction 48610.4.1 Concrete walls 48610.4.2 Retaining walls 48810.4.3 Block-type construction 48810.4.4 Box caissons 49110.4.5 Open caissons 492References 49611 Pile bents and trestles 49911.1 General 49911.2 Configuration and design of a pile bent 49911.2.1 General 49911.2.2 Earth pressure loads 50011.2.3 Load due to excess water pressure 50111.2.4 Load path for piles 50211.3 Design of pile trestles 50311.3.1 Free-standing pile trestles 50311.3.2 Special structures designed as pile trestles 50511.3.3 Structural system and calculations 50511.3.4 Construction guidance 50611.4 Design of pile bents and trestles in earthquake zones 50711.4.1 General 50711.4.2 Active and passive earth pressures, excess water pressure, variable loads 50711.4.3 Resisting the horizontal inertial forces of the superstructure 507References 50812 Dolphins 50912.1 Design and construction 50912.1.1 Dolphins – purposes and types 50912.1.2 Layout of dolphins 50912.1.3 Equipment for dolphins 51012.1.4 Advice for selecting materials 51112.2 Detailed design 51212.2.1 Stiffness of the system 51212.2.2 Structural behaviour 51212.2.3 Actions 51312.2.4 Safety concept 51512.2.5 Soil—structure interaction and the resulting design variables 51512.2.6 The required energy absorption capacity of breasting dolphins 52012.2.7 Other calculations 521References 52213 Operation, maintenance and repair of waterfront structures 52513.1 Operation of waterfront structures 52513.1.1 General 52513.1.2 Building information modelling (BIM) 52513.2 Inspecting waterfront structures 52613.2.1 Documentation 52713.2.2 Structural inspections 52813.2.3 Inspection intervals 52913.2.4 Structural monitoring supported by measurements 53013.3 Assessing the load-bearing capacity of an existing waterfront structure 53113.4 Repairing concrete waterfront structures 53313.5 Upgrading and deconstructing existing waterfront structures 53313.5.1 Upgrading measures 53313.5.2 Deconstruction in conjunction with replacement measures 535References 535Appendix A Notation 537A. 1 Symbols for variables 538A.. 1 Latin lower-case letters 538A.1. 2 Latin upper-case letters 540A.1. 3 Greek letters 542A. 2 Subscripts and indices 543A. 3 Abbreviations 544A. 4 Water levels and wave heights 545List of Advertisers 547