Dr. Michael J. Aminoff, Distinguished Professor Emeritus in neurology at the University of California San Francisco, is an internationally recognized neurologist, clinical investigator, and author. His published contributions led to the award of a Doctor of Science degree by the University of London in 2000. He is one of the two editors-in-chief of the four-volume Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences (2003; 2014) as well as one of the series editors of the multivolume Handbook of Clinical Neurology. He was editor-in-chief of the journal Muscle & Nerve from 1998 to 2007 and has served on numerous other editorial boards. He was a director of the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology for eight years and served as board chair in 2011. In 2006, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine and, in 2007, the A.B. Baker Award for Lifetime Achievement in Neurological Education from the American Academy of Neurology. In 2019 he received the Robert S. Schwab Award for outstanding contributions to research in peripheral clinical neurophysiology from the American Clinical Neurophysiology Society. Scott L. Pomeroy is an internationally known expert on the biological origins, treatment and long-term outcomes of childhood brain tumors. He has served as the Chair of the Department of Neurology and Neurologist-in-Chief of Boston Children's Hospital since 2005. Dr. Pomeroy graduated summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa from Miami University in 1975 and in 1982 was the first graduate of the M.D., Ph.D. program of the University of Cincinnati. He trained in pediatrics at Boston Children's Hospital/Harvard Medical School and in child neurology at St. Louis Children's Hospital/Washington University of St. Louis. In 1989, he won the Child Neurology Society Young Investigator Award for work done as a postdoctoral fellow of Dale Purves. The Pomeroy lab focuses on understanding the molecular and cellular basis of medulloblastomas and other embryonal brain tumors. Dr. Pomeroy has served as an ad hoc and chartered member of many NIH study sections, as co-Editor of Neurology in Clinical Practice and Associate Editor of Annals of Neurology, as President of the Child Neurology Foundation and as a member of the Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives. He has received numerous awards including the Sidney Carter Award of the American Academy of Neurology, the Daniel Drake Medal of the University of Cincinnati, the inaugural Compassionate Caregiver Award of the Kenneth Schwartz Center, and the Bernard Sachs Award of the Child Neurology Society. In 2017, he was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Medicine. Dr. Levin began his position at Cleveland Clinic in 1984 as a neurologist and currently serves in multiple capacities, including Chair of the Department of Neurology, Director of the Neuromuscular Center at the Neurological Institute, Program Director for neurophysiology and neuromuscular fellowships and Professor at the Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University. Twice awarded Teacher of the Year by the Neurology Department, Dr. Levin's specialties are electromyography and clinical neuromuscular diseases. Dr. Levin is a fellow of the American Academy of Neurology and of the American Association of Electrodiagnostic Medicine, and his been elected to membership in the American Neurological Association. He has held leadership positions in these and other professional associations and sits on the editorial board of Muscle and Nerve. The author of several books and many articles, Dr. Levin is also engaged in clinical research with interests ranging from the electrodiagnosis of radiculopathy and defects of neuromuscular junction transmission, to the treatment of polyneuropathy.

• SECTION 1. NORMAL AND ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT1.1 Embryo at 18 Days1.2 Embryo at 20 to 24 Days1.3 Central Nervous System at 28 Days1.4 Central Nervous System at 36 Days1.5 Defective Neural Tube Formation1.6 Defective Neural Tube Formation (Continued)1.7 Spinal Dysraphism1.8 Spinal Dysraphism (Continued)1.9 Fetal Brain Growth in the First Trimester1.10 Craniosynostosis1.11 Extracranial Hemorrhage and Skull Fractures in the Newborn1.12 Intracranial Hemorrhage in the Newborn1.13 External Development of the Brain in the Second and Third Trimesters1.14 Mature Brain Ventricles1.15 Hydrocephalus1.16 Surgical Treatment of Hydrocephalus1.17 Cerebral Palsy1.18 Establishing Cellular Diversity in the Embryonic Brain and Spinal Cord1.19 Generation of Neuronal Diversity in the Spinal Cord and Hindbrain1.20 Circuit Formation in the Spinal Cord1.21 Sheath and Satellite Cell Formation1.22 Development of Myelination and Axon Ensheathment1.23 Brachial Plexus and/or Cervical Nerve Root Injuries at Birth1.24 Morphogenesis and Regional Differentiation of the Forebrain1.25 Neurogenesis and Cell Migration in the Developing Neocortex1.26 Neuronal Proliferation and Migration Disorders1.27 Developmental Dyslexia1.28 Autism Spectrum Disorders1.29 Rett Syndrome1.30 Rett Syndrome (Continued)SECTION 2. CEREBRAL CORTEX AND NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS2.1 Surfaces of Cerebrum: Superolateral Surface2.2 Surfaces of Cerebrum: Medial Surface2.3 Surfaces of Cerebrum: Inferior Surface2.4 Cerebral Cortex: Function and Association Pathways2.5 Major Cortical Association Bundles2.6 Corticocortical and Subcorticocortical Projection Circuits2.7 Corpus Callosum2.8 Rhinencephalon and Limbic System2.9 Hippocampus2.10 Fornix2.11 Amygdala2.12 Forebrain Regions Associated With Hypothalamus2.13 Thalamocortical Radiations2.14 Neuronal Structure and Synapses2.15 Chemical Synaptic Transmission2.16 Summation of Excitation and Inhibition2.17 Types of Neurons in Cerebral Cortex2.18 Astrocytes2.19 Testing for Defects of Higher Cortical Function2.20 Memory Circuits2.21 Amnesia2.22 Dominant Hemisphere Language Dysfunction2.23 Nondominant Hemisphere Higher Cortical Dysfunction2.24 Alzheimer Disease: Pathology2.25 Alzheimer Disease: Distribution of Pathology2.26 Alzheimer Disease: Clinical Manifestations, Progressive Phases2.27 Frontotemporal Dementia2.28 Dementia with Lewy Bodies2.29 Vascular Dementia2.30 Treatable Dementias2.31 Normal-Pressure HydrocephalusSECTION 3. EPILEPSY3.1 Electroencephalography3.2 Focal (Partial) Seizures3.3 Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures3.4 Absence Seizures3.5 Epilepsy Syndromes3.6 Neonatal Seizures3.7 Status Epilepticus3.8 Causes of Seizures3.9 Neurobiology of Epilepsy: Ion channels3.10 Neurobiology of Epilepsy: Synaptic Receptors3.11 Neurobiology of Epilepsy: Antiepileptic Drug Targets3.12 Treatment of Epilepsy: Preoperative Evaluation3.13 Treatment of Epilepsy: Resective SurgerySECTION 4. PSYCHIATRY4.1 Limbic System4.2 Major Depressive Disorder4.3 Postpartum Depression4.4 Bipolar Disorder4.5 Bipolar Disorder (Continued)4.6 Generalized Anxiety Disorder4.7 Social Anxiety Disorder4.8 Panic Disorder4.9 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder4.10 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder4.11 Somatization4.12 Conversion Disorder4.13 Schizophrenia4.14 Alcohol Use Disorder4.15 Treatment for Alcohol Use Disorder4.16 Alcohol Withdrawal4.17 Opioid Use Disorders: Brain Substrates of Addictive Behaviors4.18 Opioid Use Disorders: Overdose Reversal4.19 Opioid Withdrawal4.20 Borderline Personality Disorder4.21 Antisocial Personality Disorder4.22 Intimate Partner Violence4.23 Abuse in Later Life4.24 Delirium and Acute Personality Changes4.25 Delirium and Acute Personality Changes (Continued)4.26 Insomnia4.27 Pediatrics: Depressive Disorders4.28 Pediatrics: Anxiety Disorders4.29 Pediatrics: Disruptive Behavior Disorders4.30 Pediatrics: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorders4.31 Pediatrics: Eating and Feeding Disorders4.32 Child Abuse: Fractures in Abused Children4.33 Child Abuse: Staging of Injuries and Injury PatternsSECTION 5. HYPOTHALAMUS, PITUITARY, SLEEP, AND THALAMUS5.1 Anatomic Relationships of the Hypothalamus5.2 Development and Developmental Disorders of the Hypothalamus5.3 Blood Supply of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland5.4 General Topography of the Hypothalamus5.5 Overview of Hypothalamic Nuclei5.6 Hypothalamic Control of the Pituitary Gland5.7 Hypothalamic Control of the Autonomic Nervous System5.8 Olfactory Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.9 Visual Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.10 Somatosensory Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.11 Taste and Other Visceral Sensory Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.12 Limbic and Cortical Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.13 Overview of Hypothalamic Function and Dysfunction5.14 Regulation of Water Balance5.15 Temperature Regulation5.16 Fever: Cytokines and Prostaglandins Cause the Sickness Response5.17 Fever: Hypothalamic Responses During Inflammation Modulate Immune Response5.18 Regulation of Food Intake, Body Weight, and Metabolism5.19 Stress Response5.20 Hypothalamic Regulation of Cardiovascular Function5.21 Hypothalamic Regulation of Sleep5.22 Narcolepsy: A Hypothalamic Sleep Disorder5.23 Sleep-Disordered Breathing5.24 Parasomnias5.25 Divisions of the Pituitary Gland and Its Relationships to the Hypothalamus5.26 Posterior Pituitary Gland5.27 Anatomic Relationships of the Pituitary Gland5.28 Effects of Pituitary Mass Lesions on the Visual Apparatus5.29 Anterior Pituitary Hormone Deficiencies5.30 Severe Anterior Pituitary Hormone Deficiencies (Panhypopituitarism)5.31 Postpartum Pituitary Infarction (Sheehan Syndrome)5.32 Pituitary Apoplexy5.33 Thalamic Anatomy and Pathology5.34 Thalamic Anatomy and Pathology (Continued)SECTION 6. DISORDERS OF CONSCIOUSNESS (COMA)6.1 Coma6.2 Disorders of Consciousness6.3 Emergency Management: Full Outline of Unresponsiveness Score (FOUR)6.4 Emergency Management: Prognosis in Coma Related to Severe Head Injuries6.5 Differential Diagnosis of Coma6.6 Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Damage6.7 Vegetative State, Minimally Conscious State, and Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome6.8 Brain Death or Death by Neurologic Criteria6.9 Ventilatory Patterns and the Apnea TestSECTION 7. BASAL GANGLIA AND MOVEMENT DISORDERS7.1 Basal Nuclei (Ganglia)7.2 Basal Ganglia and Related Structures7.3 Schematic and Cross Section of Basal Ganglia7.4 Parkinsonism: Early Manifestations7.5 Parkinsonism: Successive Clinical Stages7.6 Neuropathology of Parkinson Disease7.7 Progressive Supranuclear Palsy7.8 Corticobasal Degeneration7.9 Parkinsonism: Hypothesized Role of Dopamine7.10 Surgical Management of Movement Disorders7.11 Hyperkinetic Movement Disorder: Idiopathic Torsion Dystonia7.12 Hyperkinetic Movement Disorder: Cervical Dystonia7.12 Chorea/Ballism7.13 Tremor7.14 Tics and Tourette Syndrome7.15 Myoclonus7.17 Wilson Disease7.18 Psychogenic Movement Disorders7.19 Cerebral PalsySECTION 8. CEREBELLUM AND ATAXIA8.1 Cerebellum and the Fourth Ventricle8.2 Cerebellum Gross Anatomy8.3 Cerebellar Peduncles8.4 Cerebellar Cortex and Nuclei: Neuronal Elements8.5 Cerebellar Cortex: Neuronal Elements8.6 Cerebellar Cortical and Corticonuclear Circuitry: Cerebellar Neuronal Circuitry8.7 Cerebellar Cortical and Corticonuclear Circuitry: Circuit Diagram of Afferent Connections8.8 Cerebellum Subdivisions and Afferent Pathways8.9 Cerebellum Subdivisions and Afferent Pathways: Spinocerebellar Pathways8.10 Cerebellar Efferent Pathways8.11 Cerebellovestibular Pathways8.12 Cerebellum Modular Organization8.13 Cerebrocerebellar Connections8.14 Cerebellar Motor Examination8.15 Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome8.16 Cerebellar Disorders: Differential Diagnosis I8.17 Gait Disorders: Differential Diagnosis II8.18 Gait Disorders: Differential Diagnosis III8.19 Friedreich Ataxia8.20 Friedreich Ataxia: Cardiac Abnormalities and GAA Expansion MutationSECTION 9. CEREBROVASCULAR CIRCULATION AND STROKEOverview and Approach to Stroke Patient9.1 Arteries to Brain: Schema9.2 Arteries to Brain and Meninges9.3 Temporal and Infratemporal Fossae9.4 Territories of the Cerebral Arteries9.5 Arteries of Brain: Lateral and Medial Views9.6 Arteries of Brain: Frontal View and Section9.7 Types of Stroke9.8 Temporal Profile of Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) and Completed Infarction9.9 Clinical Evaluation and Treatment of Stroke9.10 Clinical Evaluation and Treatment of Stroke (Continued)9.11 Uncommon Etiologic Mechanisms of StrokeAnterior Circulation Ischemia9.12 Common Sites of Cerebrovascular Occlusive Disease9.13 Other Etiologies of Carotid Artery Disease9.14 Clinical Manifestations of Carotid Artery Disease9.15 Occlusion of Middle and Anterior Cerebral Arteries9.16 Diagnosis of Internal Carotid Disease9.17 Diagnosis of Carotid Artery Disease9.18 Carotid Endarterectomy9.19 Endovascular ICA Angioplasty and Stenting Using a Protective DeviceVertebral Basilar System Disorders9.20 Arterial Distribution to the Brain: Basal View9.21 Arteries of Posterior Cranial Fossa9.22 Clinical Manifestations of Vertebrobasilar Territory Ischemia9.23 Intracranial Occlusion of Vertebral Artery9.24 Occlusion of Basilar Artery and Branches9.25 Occlusion of Top-of-the-Basilar and Posterior Cerebral ArteriesBrain Emboli9.26 Cardiac Sources of Brain Emboli9.27 Uncommon Cardiac Mechanisms in StrokeLacunar Stroke9.28 Lacunar Infarction9.29 Risk Factors for Cardiovascular DiseaseOther9.30 Hypertensive Encephalopathy9.31 HypoxiaCoagulopathies9.32 Role of Platelets in Arterial Thrombosis9.33 Inherited Thrombophilias9.34 Antiphospholipid Antibody SyndromeVenous Sinus Thrombosis9.35 Meninges and Superficial Cerebral Veins9.36 Intracranial Venous Sinuses9.37 Diagnosis of Venous Sinus ThrombosisIntracerebral Hemorrhage9.38 Pathogenesis and Types9.39 Clinical Manifestations of Intracerebral Hemorrhage Related to Site9.40 Vascular MalformationsIntracranial Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage9.41 Distribution and Clinical Manifestations of Congenital Aneurysm Rupture9.42 Giant Congenital Aneurysms9.43 Ophthalmologic Manifestations of Cerebral Aneurysms9.44 Approach to Internal Carotid Aneurysms9.45 Flow Diversion Stent for Treatment of Unruptured Intracranial AneurysmPediatrics9.46 Pediatric Cerebrovascular DiseaseRehabilitation9.47 Introduction and Initial Stroke Rehabilitation9.48 Aphasia Rehabilitation9.49 Other Rehabilitative Issues: Gait Training, Upper Limb Function, Locked-in Syndrome9.50 Other Rehabilitative Issues: DysphagiaSECTION 10. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS AND OTHER CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AUTOIMMUNE DISORDERSMultiple Sclerosis10.1 Overview10.2 Clinical Manifestations10.3 Diagnosis: Typical MRI Findings-Brain10.4 Diagnosis: Typical MRI Findings-Spinal Cord10.5 Diagnosis: Visual Evoked Potential and Spinal Fluid Analysis10.6 Pathophysiology10.7 Pathophysiology (Continued)10.8 Relapses: Steps 1 to 510.9 Relapses: Step 610.10 Relapses: Steps 7 to 810.11 Relapses: Consequences10.12 Enigma of Progressive Multiple Sclerosis10.13 Pathology10.14 TreatmentNeuroimmunologic Syndromes10.15 Neuromyelitis Optica, Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis, and Acute Hemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis-Radiologic Findings10.16 Neuromyelitis Optica, Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis, and Acute Hemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis-Histopathologic Findings10.17 Introduction to Autoimmune Neurologic Syndromes10.18 Stiff-Person Syndrome Spectrum Disorder10.19 Autoimmune and Paraneoplastic Neurologic Syndromes10.20 Autoimmune and Paraneoplastic Neurologic Syndromes (Continued)10.21 Autoimmune Neurologic Syndromes: Central and Peripheral Nervous System Manifestations10.22 Autoimmune Neurologic Syndromes: Central and Peripheral Nervous System Manifestations (Continued)SECTION 11. INFECTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM11.1 Bacterial Meningitis I11.2 Bacterial Meningitis II11.3 Brain Abscess11.4 Parameningeal Infections11.5 Infections in the Immunocompromised Host: Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy and Nocardiosis11.6 Infections in the Immunocompromised Host: Listeriosis and Toxoplasmosis11.7 Neurocysticercosis11.8 Spirochetal Infections: Neurosyphilis11.9 Spirochetal Infections: Lyme Disease11.10 Tuberculosis of Brain and Spine11.11 Tetanus11.12 Aseptic Meningitis and Select Arthropod-Borne Virus Infections11.13 Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Primary Infection of the Nervous System11.14 Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Life Cycle and Antiretroviral Medications11.15 Poliomyelitis11.16 Acute Flaccid Paralysis11.17 Herpes Zoster11.18 Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis and Rabies11.19 Parasitic Infections: Cerebral Malaria and African Trypanosomiasis11.20 Parasitic Infections: Trichinosis (Trichinellosis)11.21 Parasitic Infections: Cryptococcal Meningitis11.22 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease11.23 Neurosarcoidosis11.24 Neurologic Complications of COVID-19SECTION 12. NEURO-ONCOLOGY12.1 Clinical Presentations of Brain Tumors12.2 WHO Classification of CNS Tumors12.3 Gliomas12.4 Glioblastoma12.5 Pediatric Brain Tumors: Medulloblastoma12.6 Pediatric Brain Tumors: Brainstem Glioma12.7 Ependymomas12.8 Metastatic Tumors to Brain12.9 Meningiomas12.10 Meningiomas (Continued)12.11 Pituitary Tumors12.12 Clinically Nonfunctioning Pituitary Tumor12.13 Craniopharyngioma12.14 Tumors of Pineal Region12.15 Vestibular Schwannomas12.16 Removal of Vestibular Schwannoma12.17 Intraventricular Tumors12.18 Chordomas12.19 Differential Diagnosis of CNS Tumors12.20 Spinal Tumors: Classification12.21 Spinal Tumors: Clinical Profile12.22 Treatment ModalitiesSECTION 13. HEADACHE13.1 Overview of Headaches13.2 Migraine Pathophysiology13.3 Migraine Presentation13.4 Migraine Aura13.5 Migraine Management13.6 Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalagias: Cluster Headache13.7 Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalagias: Paroxysmal Hemicrania13.8 Tension-Type Headache and Other Benign Episodic and Chronic Headaches13.9 Pediatric Headache13.10 Cranial Neuralgias: Trigeminal Neuralgia13.11 Other Cranial Neuralgias13.12 Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension, Pseudotumor Cerebri13.13 Intracranial Hypotension/Low Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure Headache13.14 Giant Cell Arteritis13.15 Contiguous Structure Headaches13.16 Thunderclap Headache and Other Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department13.17 Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department (Continued)13.18 Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department (Continued)13.19 Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department (Continued)SECTION 14. HEAD TRAUMA14.1 Skull: Anterior View14.2 Skull: Lateral View14.3 Skull: Midsagittal Section14.4 Calvaria14.5 External Aspect of Skull Base14.6 Internal Aspects of Base of Skull: Bones14.7 Internal Aspects of Base of Skull: Orifices14.8 Skull Injuries14.9 Concussion14.10 Acute Epidural Hematoma14.11 Acute Subdural Hematoma14.12 CT Scans and MR Images of Intracranial Hematomas14.13 Vascular Injury14.14 Glasgow Coma Score14.15 Initial Assessment and Management of Head Injury14.16 Neurocritical Care and Management After Traumatic Brain Injury: Devices for Monitoring Intracranial Pressure14.17 Neurocritical Care and Management: Decompressive Craniectomy

Dr. Michael J. Aminoff, Distinguished Professor Emeritus in neurology at the University of California San Francisco, is an internationally recognized neurologist, clinical investigator, and author. His published contributions led to the award of a Doctor of Science degree by the University of London in 2000. He is one of the two editors-in-chief of the four-volume Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences (2003; 2014) as well as one of the series editors of the multivolume Handbook of Clinical Neurology. He was editor-in-chief of the journal Muscle & Nerve from 1998 to 2007 and has served on numerous other editorial boards. He was a director of the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology for eight years and served as board chair in 2011. In 2006, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine and, in 2007, the A.B. Baker Award for Lifetime Achievement in Neurological Education from the American Academy of Neurology. In 2019 he received the Robert S. Schwab Award for outstanding contributions to research in peripheral clinical neurophysiology from the American Clinical Neurophysiology Society. Scott L. Pomeroy is an internationally known expert on the biological origins, treatment and long-term outcomes of childhood brain tumors. He has served as the Chair of the Department of Neurology and Neurologist-in-Chief of Boston Children's Hospital since 2005. Dr. Pomeroy graduated summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa from Miami University in 1975 and in 1982 was the first graduate of the M.D., Ph.D. program of the University of Cincinnati. He trained in pediatrics at Boston Children's Hospital/Harvard Medical School and in child neurology at St. Louis Children's Hospital/Washington University of St. Louis. In 1989, he won the Child Neurology Society Young Investigator Award for work done as a postdoctoral fellow of Dale Purves. The Pomeroy lab focuses on understanding the molecular and cellular basis of medulloblastomas and other embryonal brain tumors. Dr. Pomeroy has served as an ad hoc and chartered member of many NIH study sections, as co-Editor of Neurology in Clinical Practice and Associate Editor of Annals of Neurology, as President of the Child Neurology Foundation and as a member of the Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives. He has received numerous awards including the Sidney Carter Award of the American Academy of Neurology, the Daniel Drake Medal of the University of Cincinnati, the inaugural Compassionate Caregiver Award of the Kenneth Schwartz Center, and the Bernard Sachs Award of the Child Neurology Society. In 2017, he was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Medicine. Dr. Levin began his position at Cleveland Clinic in 1984 as a neurologist and currently serves in multiple capacities, including Chair of the Department of Neurology, Director of the Neuromuscular Center at the Neurological Institute, Program Director for neurophysiology and neuromuscular fellowships and Professor at the Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University. Twice awarded Teacher of the Year by the Neurology Department, Dr. Levin's specialties are electromyography and clinical neuromuscular diseases. Dr. Levin is a fellow of the American Academy of Neurology and of the American Association of Electrodiagnostic Medicine, and his been elected to membership in the American Neurological Association. He has held leadership positions in these and other professional associations and sits on the editorial board of Muscle and Nerve. The author of several books and many articles, Dr. Levin is also engaged in clinical research with interests ranging from the electrodiagnosis of radiculopathy and defects of neuromuscular junction transmission, to the treatment of polyneuropathy.

• SECTION 1. NORMAL AND ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT1.1 Embryo at 18 Days1.2 Embryo at 20 to 24 Days1.3 Central Nervous System at 28 Days1.4 Central Nervous System at 36 Days1.5 Defective Neural Tube Formation1.6 Defective Neural Tube Formation (Continued)1.7 Spinal Dysraphism1.8 Spinal Dysraphism (Continued)1.9 Fetal Brain Growth in the First Trimester1.10 Craniosynostosis1.11 Extracranial Hemorrhage and Skull Fractures in the Newborn1.12 Intracranial Hemorrhage in the Newborn1.13 External Development of the Brain in the Second and Third Trimesters1.14 Mature Brain Ventricles1.15 Hydrocephalus1.16 Surgical Treatment of Hydrocephalus1.17 Cerebral Palsy1.18 Establishing Cellular Diversity in the Embryonic Brain and Spinal Cord1.19 Generation of Neuronal Diversity in the Spinal Cord and Hindbrain1.20 Circuit Formation in the Spinal Cord1.21 Sheath and Satellite Cell Formation1.22 Development of Myelination and Axon Ensheathment1.23 Brachial Plexus and/or Cervical Nerve Root Injuries at Birth1.24 Morphogenesis and Regional Differentiation of the Forebrain1.25 Neurogenesis and Cell Migration in the Developing Neocortex1.26 Neuronal Proliferation and Migration Disorders1.27 Developmental Dyslexia1.28 Autism Spectrum Disorders1.29 Rett Syndrome1.30 Rett Syndrome (Continued)SECTION 2. CEREBRAL CORTEX AND NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS2.1 Surfaces of Cerebrum: Superolateral Surface2.2 Surfaces of Cerebrum: Medial Surface2.3 Surfaces of Cerebrum: Inferior Surface2.4 Cerebral Cortex: Function and Association Pathways2.5 Major Cortical Association Bundles2.6 Corticocortical and Subcorticocortical Projection Circuits2.7 Corpus Callosum2.8 Rhinencephalon and Limbic System2.9 Hippocampus2.10 Fornix2.11 Amygdala2.12 Forebrain Regions Associated With Hypothalamus2.13 Thalamocortical Radiations2.14 Neuronal Structure and Synapses2.15 Chemical Synaptic Transmission2.16 Summation of Excitation and Inhibition2.17 Types of Neurons in Cerebral Cortex2.18 Astrocytes2.19 Testing for Defects of Higher Cortical Function2.20 Memory Circuits2.21 Amnesia2.22 Dominant Hemisphere Language Dysfunction2.23 Nondominant Hemisphere Higher Cortical Dysfunction2.24 Alzheimer Disease: Pathology2.25 Alzheimer Disease: Distribution of Pathology2.26 Alzheimer Disease: Clinical Manifestations, Progressive Phases2.27 Frontotemporal Dementia2.28 Dementia with Lewy Bodies2.29 Vascular Dementia2.30 Treatable Dementias2.31 Normal-Pressure HydrocephalusSECTION 3. EPILEPSY3.1 Electroencephalography3.2 Focal (Partial) Seizures3.3 Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures3.4 Absence Seizures3.5 Epilepsy Syndromes3.6 Neonatal Seizures3.7 Status Epilepticus3.8 Causes of Seizures3.9 Neurobiology of Epilepsy: Ion channels3.10 Neurobiology of Epilepsy: Synaptic Receptors3.11 Neurobiology of Epilepsy: Antiepileptic Drug Targets3.12 Treatment of Epilepsy: Preoperative Evaluation3.13 Treatment of Epilepsy: Resective SurgerySECTION 4. PSYCHIATRY4.1 Limbic System4.2 Major Depressive Disorder4.3 Postpartum Depression4.4 Bipolar Disorder4.5 Bipolar Disorder (Continued)4.6 Generalized Anxiety Disorder4.7 Social Anxiety Disorder4.8 Panic Disorder4.9 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder4.10 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder4.11 Somatization4.12 Conversion Disorder4.13 Schizophrenia4.14 Alcohol Use Disorder4.15 Treatment for Alcohol Use Disorder4.16 Alcohol Withdrawal4.17 Opioid Use Disorders: Brain Substrates of Addictive Behaviors4.18 Opioid Use Disorders: Overdose Reversal4.19 Opioid Withdrawal4.20 Borderline Personality Disorder4.21 Antisocial Personality Disorder4.22 Intimate Partner Violence4.23 Abuse in Later Life4.24 Delirium and Acute Personality Changes4.25 Delirium and Acute Personality Changes (Continued)4.26 Insomnia4.27 Pediatrics: Depressive Disorders4.28 Pediatrics: Anxiety Disorders4.29 Pediatrics: Disruptive Behavior Disorders4.30 Pediatrics: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorders4.31 Pediatrics: Eating and Feeding Disorders4.32 Child Abuse: Fractures in Abused Children4.33 Child Abuse: Staging of Injuries and Injury PatternsSECTION 5. HYPOTHALAMUS, PITUITARY, SLEEP, AND THALAMUS5.1 Anatomic Relationships of the Hypothalamus5.2 Development and Developmental Disorders of the Hypothalamus5.3 Blood Supply of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland5.4 General Topography of the Hypothalamus5.5 Overview of Hypothalamic Nuclei5.6 Hypothalamic Control of the Pituitary Gland5.7 Hypothalamic Control of the Autonomic Nervous System5.8 Olfactory Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.9 Visual Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.10 Somatosensory Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.11 Taste and Other Visceral Sensory Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.12 Limbic and Cortical Inputs to the Hypothalamus5.13 Overview of Hypothalamic Function and Dysfunction5.14 Regulation of Water Balance5.15 Temperature Regulation5.16 Fever: Cytokines and Prostaglandins Cause the Sickness Response5.17 Fever: Hypothalamic Responses During Inflammation Modulate Immune Response5.18 Regulation of Food Intake, Body Weight, and Metabolism5.19 Stress Response5.20 Hypothalamic Regulation of Cardiovascular Function5.21 Hypothalamic Regulation of Sleep5.22 Narcolepsy: A Hypothalamic Sleep Disorder5.23 Sleep-Disordered Breathing5.24 Parasomnias5.25 Divisions of the Pituitary Gland and Its Relationships to the Hypothalamus5.26 Posterior Pituitary Gland5.27 Anatomic Relationships of the Pituitary Gland5.28 Effects of Pituitary Mass Lesions on the Visual Apparatus5.29 Anterior Pituitary Hormone Deficiencies5.30 Severe Anterior Pituitary Hormone Deficiencies (Panhypopituitarism)5.31 Postpartum Pituitary Infarction (Sheehan Syndrome)5.32 Pituitary Apoplexy5.33 Thalamic Anatomy and Pathology5.34 Thalamic Anatomy and Pathology (Continued)SECTION 6. DISORDERS OF CONSCIOUSNESS (COMA)6.1 Coma6.2 Disorders of Consciousness6.3 Emergency Management: Full Outline of Unresponsiveness Score (FOUR)6.4 Emergency Management: Prognosis in Coma Related to Severe Head Injuries6.5 Differential Diagnosis of Coma6.6 Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Damage6.7 Vegetative State, Minimally Conscious State, and Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome6.8 Brain Death or Death by Neurologic Criteria6.9 Ventilatory Patterns and the Apnea TestSECTION 7. BASAL GANGLIA AND MOVEMENT DISORDERS7.1 Basal Nuclei (Ganglia)7.2 Basal Ganglia and Related Structures7.3 Schematic and Cross Section of Basal Ganglia7.4 Parkinsonism: Early Manifestations7.5 Parkinsonism: Successive Clinical Stages7.6 Neuropathology of Parkinson Disease7.7 Progressive Supranuclear Palsy7.8 Corticobasal Degeneration7.9 Parkinsonism: Hypothesized Role of Dopamine7.10 Surgical Management of Movement Disorders7.11 Hyperkinetic Movement Disorder: Idiopathic Torsion Dystonia7.12 Hyperkinetic Movement Disorder: Cervical Dystonia7.12 Chorea/Ballism7.13 Tremor7.14 Tics and Tourette Syndrome7.15 Myoclonus7.17 Wilson Disease7.18 Psychogenic Movement Disorders7.19 Cerebral PalsySECTION 8. CEREBELLUM AND ATAXIA8.1 Cerebellum and the Fourth Ventricle8.2 Cerebellum Gross Anatomy8.3 Cerebellar Peduncles8.4 Cerebellar Cortex and Nuclei: Neuronal Elements8.5 Cerebellar Cortex: Neuronal Elements8.6 Cerebellar Cortical and Corticonuclear Circuitry: Cerebellar Neuronal Circuitry8.7 Cerebellar Cortical and Corticonuclear Circuitry: Circuit Diagram of Afferent Connections8.8 Cerebellum Subdivisions and Afferent Pathways8.9 Cerebellum Subdivisions and Afferent Pathways: Spinocerebellar Pathways8.10 Cerebellar Efferent Pathways8.11 Cerebellovestibular Pathways8.12 Cerebellum Modular Organization8.13 Cerebrocerebellar Connections8.14 Cerebellar Motor Examination8.15 Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome8.16 Cerebellar Disorders: Differential Diagnosis I8.17 Gait Disorders: Differential Diagnosis II8.18 Gait Disorders: Differential Diagnosis III8.19 Friedreich Ataxia8.20 Friedreich Ataxia: Cardiac Abnormalities and GAA Expansion MutationSECTION 9. CEREBROVASCULAR CIRCULATION AND STROKEOverview and Approach to Stroke Patient9.1 Arteries to Brain: Schema9.2 Arteries to Brain and Meninges9.3 Temporal and Infratemporal Fossae9.4 Territories of the Cerebral Arteries9.5 Arteries of Brain: Lateral and Medial Views9.6 Arteries of Brain: Frontal View and Section9.7 Types of Stroke9.8 Temporal Profile of Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) and Completed Infarction9.9 Clinical Evaluation and Treatment of Stroke9.10 Clinical Evaluation and Treatment of Stroke (Continued)9.11 Uncommon Etiologic Mechanisms of StrokeAnterior Circulation Ischemia9.12 Common Sites of Cerebrovascular Occlusive Disease9.13 Other Etiologies of Carotid Artery Disease9.14 Clinical Manifestations of Carotid Artery Disease9.15 Occlusion of Middle and Anterior Cerebral Arteries9.16 Diagnosis of Internal Carotid Disease9.17 Diagnosis of Carotid Artery Disease9.18 Carotid Endarterectomy9.19 Endovascular ICA Angioplasty and Stenting Using a Protective DeviceVertebral Basilar System Disorders9.20 Arterial Distribution to the Brain: Basal View9.21 Arteries of Posterior Cranial Fossa9.22 Clinical Manifestations of Vertebrobasilar Territory Ischemia9.23 Intracranial Occlusion of Vertebral Artery9.24 Occlusion of Basilar Artery and Branches9.25 Occlusion of Top-of-the-Basilar and Posterior Cerebral ArteriesBrain Emboli9.26 Cardiac Sources of Brain Emboli9.27 Uncommon Cardiac Mechanisms in StrokeLacunar Stroke9.28 Lacunar Infarction9.29 Risk Factors for Cardiovascular DiseaseOther9.30 Hypertensive Encephalopathy9.31 HypoxiaCoagulopathies9.32 Role of Platelets in Arterial Thrombosis9.33 Inherited Thrombophilias9.34 Antiphospholipid Antibody SyndromeVenous Sinus Thrombosis9.35 Meninges and Superficial Cerebral Veins9.36 Intracranial Venous Sinuses9.37 Diagnosis of Venous Sinus ThrombosisIntracerebral Hemorrhage9.38 Pathogenesis and Types9.39 Clinical Manifestations of Intracerebral Hemorrhage Related to Site9.40 Vascular MalformationsIntracranial Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage9.41 Distribution and Clinical Manifestations of Congenital Aneurysm Rupture9.42 Giant Congenital Aneurysms9.43 Ophthalmologic Manifestations of Cerebral Aneurysms9.44 Approach to Internal Carotid Aneurysms9.45 Flow Diversion Stent for Treatment of Unruptured Intracranial AneurysmPediatrics9.46 Pediatric Cerebrovascular DiseaseRehabilitation9.47 Introduction and Initial Stroke Rehabilitation9.48 Aphasia Rehabilitation9.49 Other Rehabilitative Issues: Gait Training, Upper Limb Function, Locked-in Syndrome9.50 Other Rehabilitative Issues: DysphagiaSECTION 10. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS AND OTHER CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AUTOIMMUNE DISORDERSMultiple Sclerosis10.1 Overview10.2 Clinical Manifestations10.3 Diagnosis: Typical MRI Findings-Brain10.4 Diagnosis: Typical MRI Findings-Spinal Cord10.5 Diagnosis: Visual Evoked Potential and Spinal Fluid Analysis10.6 Pathophysiology10.7 Pathophysiology (Continued)10.8 Relapses: Steps 1 to 510.9 Relapses: Step 610.10 Relapses: Steps 7 to 810.11 Relapses: Consequences10.12 Enigma of Progressive Multiple Sclerosis10.13 Pathology10.14 TreatmentNeuroimmunologic Syndromes10.15 Neuromyelitis Optica, Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis, and Acute Hemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis-Radiologic Findings10.16 Neuromyelitis Optica, Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis, and Acute Hemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis-Histopathologic Findings10.17 Introduction to Autoimmune Neurologic Syndromes10.18 Stiff-Person Syndrome Spectrum Disorder10.19 Autoimmune and Paraneoplastic Neurologic Syndromes10.20 Autoimmune and Paraneoplastic Neurologic Syndromes (Continued)10.21 Autoimmune Neurologic Syndromes: Central and Peripheral Nervous System Manifestations10.22 Autoimmune Neurologic Syndromes: Central and Peripheral Nervous System Manifestations (Continued)SECTION 11. INFECTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM11.1 Bacterial Meningitis I11.2 Bacterial Meningitis II11.3 Brain Abscess11.4 Parameningeal Infections11.5 Infections in the Immunocompromised Host: Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy and Nocardiosis11.6 Infections in the Immunocompromised Host: Listeriosis and Toxoplasmosis11.7 Neurocysticercosis11.8 Spirochetal Infections: Neurosyphilis11.9 Spirochetal Infections: Lyme Disease11.10 Tuberculosis of Brain and Spine11.11 Tetanus11.12 Aseptic Meningitis and Select Arthropod-Borne Virus Infections11.13 Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Primary Infection of the Nervous System11.14 Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Life Cycle and Antiretroviral Medications11.15 Poliomyelitis11.16 Acute Flaccid Paralysis11.17 Herpes Zoster11.18 Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis and Rabies11.19 Parasitic Infections: Cerebral Malaria and African Trypanosomiasis11.20 Parasitic Infections: Trichinosis (Trichinellosis)11.21 Parasitic Infections: Cryptococcal Meningitis11.22 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease11.23 Neurosarcoidosis11.24 Neurologic Complications of COVID-19SECTION 12. NEURO-ONCOLOGY12.1 Clinical Presentations of Brain Tumors12.2 WHO Classification of CNS Tumors12.3 Gliomas12.4 Glioblastoma12.5 Pediatric Brain Tumors: Medulloblastoma12.6 Pediatric Brain Tumors: Brainstem Glioma12.7 Ependymomas12.8 Metastatic Tumors to Brain12.9 Meningiomas12.10 Meningiomas (Continued)12.11 Pituitary Tumors12.12 Clinically Nonfunctioning Pituitary Tumor12.13 Craniopharyngioma12.14 Tumors of Pineal Region12.15 Vestibular Schwannomas12.16 Removal of Vestibular Schwannoma12.17 Intraventricular Tumors12.18 Chordomas12.19 Differential Diagnosis of CNS Tumors12.20 Spinal Tumors: Classification12.21 Spinal Tumors: Clinical Profile12.22 Treatment ModalitiesSECTION 13. HEADACHE13.1 Overview of Headaches13.2 Migraine Pathophysiology13.3 Migraine Presentation13.4 Migraine Aura13.5 Migraine Management13.6 Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalagias: Cluster Headache13.7 Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalagias: Paroxysmal Hemicrania13.8 Tension-Type Headache and Other Benign Episodic and Chronic Headaches13.9 Pediatric Headache13.10 Cranial Neuralgias: Trigeminal Neuralgia13.11 Other Cranial Neuralgias13.12 Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension, Pseudotumor Cerebri13.13 Intracranial Hypotension/Low Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure Headache13.14 Giant Cell Arteritis13.15 Contiguous Structure Headaches13.16 Thunderclap Headache and Other Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department13.17 Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department (Continued)13.18 Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department (Continued)13.19 Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department (Continued)SECTION 14. HEAD TRAUMA14.1 Skull: Anterior View14.2 Skull: Lateral View14.3 Skull: Midsagittal Section14.4 Calvaria14.5 External Aspect of Skull Base14.6 Internal Aspects of Base of Skull: Bones14.7 Internal Aspects of Base of Skull: Orifices14.8 Skull Injuries14.9 Concussion14.10 Acute Epidural Hematoma14.11 Acute Subdural Hematoma14.12 CT Scans and MR Images of Intracranial Hematomas14.13 Vascular Injury14.14 Glasgow Coma Score14.15 Initial Assessment and Management of Head Injury14.16 Neurocritical Care and Management After Traumatic Brain Injury: Devices for Monitoring Intracranial Pressure14.17 Neurocritical Care and Management: Decompressive Craniectomy