Sustainable Retail Refrigeration

Professor Judith A. Evans, London South Bank University, UKDr Alan M. Foster, London South Bank University, UK

• List of Contributors xiii Abbreviations xv1 Overview of Retail Display in Food Retailing 1Alan M. Foster and Judith A. Evans1.1 History 11.2 Retail refrigeration and the food cold chain 31.2.1 Temperature 31.2.2 Emissions 41.3 Types of store 91.4 Purpose of retail display 91.5 Types of cabinet 101.5.1 Open]fronted vertical display 101.5.2 Closed display 101.5.3 Food display 111.5.4 Refrigeration systems 111.6 Cabinet performance 121.7 Store ventilation and air conditioning 131.8 Design and optimization 131.9 Future trends 14References 142 Operation, Design and Performance of Retail Display Cabinets 17Onrawee Laguerre2.1 Introduction 172.2 Different types of display cabinet 182.3 Display cabinet operation 192.4 Heat transfer in display cabinets 202.5 Experimental study of heat transfer and airflow in a refrigerated display cabinet 222.5.1 Airflow visualization 222.5.2 Velocity field in air curtain 232.5.3 Temperature variations inside the display cabinet 242.5.4 Temperature field in the display cabinet 242.6 Performance of cabinets – temperature and energy 262.6.1 Improvement of energy efficiency 272.6.2 Refrigerant leakage 282.7 Conclusion 29References 293 Retail Display Testing Standards and Legislation 33Judith A. Evans3.1 Introduction 333.2 Test standards for retail cabinets worldwide 343.2.1 ISO EN 23953:2005 + amd. 2012 (Europe) 353.2.2 ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 72]2005, Method of Testing Commercial Refrigerators and Freezers (USA) 383.2.3 ANSI/AHRI Standard 1200 (2010) Standard for Performance Rating of Commercial Refrigerated Display Merchandisers and Storage Cabinets (USA) 403.2.4 AS 1731 Standard (Australia and New Zealand) 413.2.5 Comparison between test standards 433.3 Voluntary and mandatory efficiency programmes 493.3.1 Energy Star Program (USA) 493.3.2 Self]Contained Commercial Refrigerators and Freezers, Energy Efficiency Regulations (Canada) 493.3.3 MEPS Requirements for Commercial Refrigeration (Australia) 513.3.4 UK Enhanced Capital Allowance (ECA) Scheme (UK) 513.3.5 Accelerated Capital Allowance (ACA) (Ireland) 523.3.6 Ecodesign Directive 523.4 International legislation affecting retail cabinets 533.4.1 Europe 533.4.2 USA 543.4.3 Australia/New Zealand 543.5 Real]life operation of display cabinets 553.5.1 Impact of standards on cabinet performance in supermarkets 553.5.2 Reasons for variations between test standards and real]life usage of cabinets 563.6 Conclusions 59References 594 Airflow Optimization in Retail Cabinets and the Use of CFD Modelling to Design Cabinets 63Homayun K. Navaz, Mazyar Amin, Ramin Faramarzi, Nasser Kehtarnavaz, Kristina Kamensky and Albert Nowakowski4.1 Introduction 634.2 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 664.3 Open vertical refrigerated display case – model description 694.4 Conclusion 77Acknowledgement 78References 785 Display of Unwrapped Foods 81Tim Brown5.1 Introduction 815.2 Mass transfer 815.2.1 The impact of weight loss on quality and operating costs 825.3 Common types of display cabinets for unwrapped food 845.3.1 Temperature and moisture control issues 855.3.2 Reducing weight loss and drying by humidification 865.4 Hygiene 885.4.1 Research results – hygiene and bacteria 885.4.2 Research results – impact of humidification systems 895.5 Conclusions 90References 916 Small Commercial Display Cabinets 93Brian Fricke and Pradeep Kumar Bansal6.1 Introduction 936.2 Types and applications of small integral display cabinets 936.2.1 Integral medium]temperature and low]temperature food display cabinets 946.2.2 Vending machines 956.3 Advantages and disadvantages of integral display cabinets 966.4 Display cabinet features 966.4.1 Air curtains 976.4.2 Doors and anti]sweat heaters 976.4.3 Lighting 986.5 Typical vapour compression refrigeration system and components 996.5.1 Condenser 1006.5.2 Capillary tube: significance, selection and control strategies 1016.5.3 Evaporator 1026.5.4 Compressor 1046.6 Energy modelling of display cabinets 1066.6.1 Compressor model 1066.6.2 Display cabinet model 1076.6.3 Heat exchanger model 1076.6.4 Expansion valve model 1096.7 Refrigerant options 1106.8 Alternative refrigeration systems 1126.8.1 Thermoacoustic refrigeration 1126.8.2 Thermoelectric refrigeration 1146.8.3 Magnetic refrigeration 115Nomenclature 118Greek letters 119Subscripts 119References 1207 Current and Future Carbon]saving Options for Retail Refrigeration 125Michael Kauffeld7.1 Introduction 1257.2 Reducing direct emissions of greenhouse gases 1267.2.1 Gas]tight refrigeration systems 1267.2.2 Reduced refrigerant charge 1277.2.3 Refrigerants without, or with very low, GWP 1307.3 Reducing energy consumption 1347.3.1 Heat recovery 1397.3.2 Energy accumulation in the form of thermal storage 1407.3.3 Intelligent system control 1407.3.4 Glass lids and doors 1417.3.5 Improved insulation 1427.3.6 Infra]red reflecting shades and baldaquins 1437.3.7 Improved air curtain in open refrigerated multi]decks 1437.3.8 Improved anti]sweat heaters, edge/rim heating, dew point control 1437.3.9 Siphon in defrost drain 1447.3.10 Improved lighting 1447.3.11 Improved compressor 1447.3.12 Two]stage compression with intermediate cooling 1457.3.13 Rotation speed control/variable speed drive (VSD) compressors (and pumps) 1457.3.14 Drive compressor (partially) by expansion machine 1467.3.15 Improved expansion valves 1467.3.16 Expansion machine 1477.3.17 Improved evaporator/condenser 1477.3.18 Flooded evaporators 1487.3.19 Defrost on demand of the evaporator 1487.3.20 Hot gas/warm brine defrost 1487.3.21 Improved fan and/or fan motor 1497.3.22 Speed control of fan 1507.3.23 Fan motor outside cabinet 1507.3.24 Reduced condensation temperature 1507.3.25 Free cooling 1527.3.26 Suction line heat exchanger/internal heat exchange 1527.3.27 Economizer 1527.3.28 Optimized refrigerants 1527.3.29 Correct product loading of the refrigeration/freezer units 1537.3.30 Air humidity in the sales room 1537.3.31 Cleaning of evaporator and condenser 1537.3.32 Summary of measures 1537.4 Using renewable energy 1547.5 Discussion 1557.6 Conclusions 155Acknowledgement 155References 1558 Design of Supermarket Refrigeration Systems 159John Austin]Davies8.1 Introduction 1598.2 Types of food retail store 1598.2.1 Convenience 1608.2.2 Supermarket 1608.2.3 Hypermarket 1608.2.4 Others 1618.3 Choice of refrigeration system 1618.3.1 Convenience 1618.3.2 Supermarket 1628.3.3 Hypermarket 1648.4 Direct expansion system 1648.5 Refrigerants 1668.5.1 HFCs 1668.5.2 HFOs 1688.6 Refrigerant containment 1698.7 Energy usage in a typical store 1698.8 Optimizing energy efficiency through compressor selection 1708.9 Optimizing energy efficiency through control and component selection 1728.9.1 Defrost 1728.9.2 Discharge and suction pressure control 1748.9.3 Expansion device 1758.9.4 Anti]condensation heaters 1768.9.5 Fan motors 1768.9.6 Heat exchangers 1778.9.7 Night blinds or covers 1778.9.8 Lighting 1778.9.9 Heat reclaim 1788.10 Skills and training 1789 Refrigerants and Carbon Footprint in Supermarkets 179Andy Pearson9.1 Introduction 1799.2 Carbon footprint 1809.2.1 Energy efficiency and carbon footprint 1809.2.2 Global warming potential and carbon footprint 1819.2.3 Carbon footprint reduction 1839.3 Use of natural refrigerants in supermarkets 1839.3.1 Natural refrigerants in the retail market 1849.3.2 Design of CO2 supermarket systems 1859.3.3 Explanation of various systems, their advantages and disadvantages 1869.3.4 Components and selection of components 1919.3.5 Methods to achieve low energy consumption and leakage rates 1929.4 Other natural alternatives 1949.4.1 Hydrocarbons with water loop condensing circuit 1949.4.2 Air cycle 1959.4.3 Secondary systems 1959.5 Future systems 196References 19610 Integration of Air Conditioning, Refrigeration and Energy Generation in Supermarkets 199Giovanni Cortella and Paola D’Agaro10.1 Introduction 19910.2 Integration between refrigeration and air conditioning systems 20210.2.1 Supermarket HVAC system 20210.2.2 Interaction between refrigerated display cases and store air conditions 20210.3 Heat recovery 20610.3.1 Heat availability for recovery 20710.3.2 Heat recovery strategies 20810.3.3 Heat recovery with directly connected heat pumps 21010.3.4 Heat recovery with water loop heat pumps (WLHPs) 21210.3.5 Heat recovery from CO2 refrigerating systems 21410.4 Co]generation and tri]generation 21610.4.1 Power systems 21810.4.2 Thermally driven cooling systems 21910.4.3 System arrangements 22110.5 Concluding remarks 225References 22511 Maintenance and Long]term Operation of Supermarkets and Minimizing Refrigerant Leakage 229David Cowan, Graeme Maidment, Brian Churchyard and John Bonner11.1 Introduction – an end user perspective 22911.1.1 Energy consumption, refrigerant gas leakage and carbon emissions 23011.1.2 Managing the refrigeration estate 23111.1.3 Reliability 23111.1.4 Equipment sourcing 23211.2 Refrigeration management at ASDA UK 23211.3 Why is refrigerant leakage important? 23211.4 Refrigerants, leakage rates and trends in the retail sector 23411.5 Where and why refrigerant leakage occurs 23811.5.1 Previous studies 23911.5.2 Where do systems leak? Analysis of service records 24011.6 Legislative and other approaches to reducing refrigerant emissions 24411.6.1 USA 24411.6.2 Japan 24511.6.3 Asia Pacific 24511.6.4 Europe 24511.6.5 Additional measures aimed at reducing refrigerant leakage 24711.7 Training and certification of refrigeration personnel 24911.8 Refrigerant containment in supermarkets 25011.8.1 Design 25111.8.2 Installation 25111.8.3 Commissioning 25111.8.4 Operation 25111.8.5 Service and maintenance 25211.8.6 Record]keeping 25211.8.7 Best practice guidance 25211.9 Operation and maintenance of refrigeration systems at ASDA UK 25611.9.1 Maintenance philosophy 25611.9.2 General and preventative maintenance procedures 25711.9.3 Leak testing 25811.9.4 Records and record]keeping 25811.9.5 Using records and targets to drive improvements 25911.9.6 Performance monitoring and KPIs 259References 26112 Whole Supermarket System Modelling 263Jaime Arias12.1 Modelling a whole supermarket 26412.2 Modelling subsystems in supermarkets 26612.2.1 Building model 26612.2.2 Outdoor climate 26712.2.3 HVAC model 26712.2.4 Refrigeration system model 26812.2.5 Display cabinets 27112.2.6 Cold storage rooms 27312.2.7 Defrost 27312.3 Available models 27312.3.1 EnergyPlus 27412.3.2 CyberMart 27512.3.3 RETScreen 27612.3.4 SuperSIM 27712.4 Capabilities of the models 27812.5 Future developments 289References 29013 Lifecycle Analysis, Carbon Footprint, Sustainability 291Richard Watkins13.1 Introduction to lifecycle analysis 29113.2 LCA concepts 29213.3 The single LCA index 29313.4 LCA limitations 29313.5 Example: Compare the lifecycle impact of three different refrigerated cabinets 29413.5.1 Goal and scope 29513.5.2 Functional unit 29513.5.3 Inventory analysis 29713.5.4 Lifecycle scenario assumptions 29813.5.5 Impact assessment of the three cabinets 29913.6 Designing for low lifecycle impact 30113.6.1 Material choice to reduce environmental impact 30113.6.2 Design to reduce environmental impact 30213.7 Carbon footprint 30513.7.1 Assessing carbon footprint 30613.7.2 Supermarket contribution to carbon footprint 30813.8 Total equivalent warming impact (TEWI) 30813.9 Future developments 310References 31114 Designing a Zero Carbon Supermarket 313Svein H. Ruud and Ulla Lindberg14.1 Introduction 31314.2 System boundaries 31414.3 Building needs 31514.4 Refrigerated appliances 31614.5 Lighting and other appliances 31714.6 Building technical systems 31814.7 Building energy management systems 32214.8 Building envelope 32214.9 Energy supply 32314.10 Energy export or storage 32514.11 Design for operation and maintenance 32614.12 Design for low lifecycle cost 32714.13 Design for the people 32714.14 An example of a zero carbon supermarket 328References 328Glossary 329Index 337