Indoor Wireless Communications

Dr. Alejandro Aragón-Zavala, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Querétaro, MéxicoDr. Aragón-Zavala graduated from Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Querétaro as Electronics and Communications Engineer in December 1991. In 1998 he received his MSc in Satellite Communication Engineering from the University of Surrey, and in 2003 his PhD in Antennas and Propagation at the same university. He has worked as an engineer and consultant in the industry, and since 2003, Dr. Aragón-Zavala has been the Academic Director of the former IEC and ISE undergraduate programs at the Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Querétaro, and is in charge of ITE (all Electronic Engineering degrees). His research interests include: mobile communications, satellite systems, high-altitude platform systems, antenna design and indoor propagation.

• Preface xix1 Introduction 11.1 Motivation 11.2 Evolution of Macro to Heterogeneous Networks 21.3 Challenges 31.4 Structure of the Book 4References 52 Indoor Wireless Technologies 72.1 Cellular 72.1.1 The Cellular Concept 82.1.2 GSM 92.1.3 UMTS 112.1.4 HSPA 122.1.5 LTE 132.2 Wi-Fi 142.2.1 History 142.2.2 Medium Access Control (MAC) Sublayer 162.2.3 Physical Layer 172.2.4 Industry Bodies 172.2.4.1 Wi-Fi Alliance 172.2.4.2 IEEE 802.11 172.2.4.3 The Wireless Broadband Alliance 172.2.5 Wi-Fi Standards 182.2.5.1 IEEE 802.11-1997 182.2.5.2 IEEE 802.11a 182.2.5.3 IEEE 802.11b 182.2.5.4 IEEE 802.11g 182.2.5.5 IEEE 802.11-2007 182.2.5.6 IEEE 802.11n 182.2.6 Spectrum 192.2.6.1 2.4 GHz Band 192.2.6.2 5 GHz Band 202.2.7 Modulation Schemes Used in Wi-Fi 212.2.8 Multiple Access (MA) Techniques 212.2.8.1 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) 212.2.8.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) 222.2.8.3 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 232.2.9 Power Levels 242.2.10 Performance Indicators 252.2.11 Target Signal Levels and Link Budgets 252.2.12 Interference Challenges 292.2.13 Channel Planning 292.2.13.1 Single-Floor and Vertical Channel Planning 302.2.13.2 Multichannel Access Points 312.2.13.3 Automated Planning 312.2.14 Mobility Issues 312.2.14.1 Layer 2 Roam 322.2.14.2 Layer 3 Roam 322.3 Bluetooth 332.4 ZigBee 362.5 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) 372.6 Private Mobile Radio (PMR) 392.6.1 PMR Elements 402.6.2 Attributes 402.6.3 TETRA 412.7 Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) 42References 443 System Requirements 453.1 Environments 453.1.1 Corporate Buildings 463.1.2 Airports 473.1.3 Trains and Railway Stations 503.1.4 Shopping Centres 523.1.5 Hospitals 533.1.6 Arenas and Stadiums 543.1.6.1 What Makes a Stadium so Special? 563.1.6.2 Mix of Communities with Different Needs 563.1.7 University Campuses 573.1.8 Underground Stations 593.1.9 Cinemas and Theatres 603.1.10 Hotels 603.1.11 Cruise Ships 623.2 Coverage 623.2.1 Cellular 623.2.2 Wi-Fi 643.2.3 Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN) 653.3 Isolation 663.4 Leakage 673.5 Capacity 673.6 Interference 703.7 Signal Quality 713.8 Technology 723.9 Cost 723.10 Upgradeability 733.11 System Expansion 743.12 Conclusion 74References 744 Radio Propagation 774.1 Maxwell’s Equations 774.1.1 Gauss’s Law for Electricity 794.1.2 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism 794.1.3 Faraday’s Law of Induction 814.1.4 Ampère’s Circuital Law 814.1.5 Consequence of Maxwell’s Equations 824.2 Plane Waves 824.2.1 Wave Equation 834.2.2 Plane Wave Properties 844.2.3 Wave Polarization 854.2.4 Wave Propagation in Lossy Media 874.3 Propagation Mechanisms 874.3.1 Is Electromagnetic Theory Wrong Inside Buildings? 874.3.2 Loss and Skin Effect 884.3.3 Reflection 894.3.4 Refraction (Transmission) 904.3.5 Diffraction 914.3.6 Scattering 924.3.7 Waveguiding 944.4 Effects of Materials 954.5 Path Loss 974.5.1 Median Path Loss 974.5.2 Link Budgets 984.5.3 Receiver Sensitivity 994.5.4 Maximum Acceptable Path Loss (MAPL) 994.5.5 Free-Space Loss 1004.5.6 Excess Loss 1004.6 Fast Fading 1014.7 Shadowing (Slow Fading) 1034.8 Building Penetration Loss 1044.8.1 Radio Wave Propagation into Buildings 1064.8.2 Variations with Frequency 1064.8.3 Variations with Depth and Clutter 1094.8.4 Comparison of Assumptions Made by Ofcom 1094.9 Conclusion 109References 1105 Channel Modelling 1135.1 The Importance of Channel Modelling 1135.2 Propagation Modelling Challenges 1145.3 Model Classification 1145.3.1 Channel Bandwidth 1145.3.2 Propagation Environment 1155.3.3 Model Construction Approach 1155.4 Model Accuracy 1165.5 Empirical Models 1175.5.1 Power Law Model 1185.5.2 Keenan–Motley Model 1195.5.3 ITU-R Indoor Model 1215.5.4 Siwiak–Bertoni–Yano (SBY) Multipath-Based Model 1225.5.5 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model 1225.5.6 Tuan Empirical Indoor Model: 900 MHz to 5.7 GHz 1235.5.7 Attenuation Factor Model 1235.5.8 Indoor Dominant Path Model (DPM) 1245.5.9 COST-231 Multiwall Model 1265.6 Physical Models 1285.6.1 Introduction to Ray Tracing 1295.6.2 Honcharenko–Bertoni Model 1305.6.3 Ray-Tracing Site-Specific Model 1315.6.4 Lee Ray-Tracing Model 1325.6.5 Multichannel Coupling (MCC) Prediction 1335.6.6 Angular Z-Buffer Algorithm for Efficient Ray Tracing 1365.6.7 Intelligent Ray-Tracing (IRT) Model 1385.6.8 Hybrid Parabolic Equation–Integral Equation Indoor Model 1395.7 Hybrid Models 1405.7.1 Reduced-Complexity UTD Model 1405.7.2 Measurement-Based Prediction 1425.8 Outdoor-to-Indoor Models 1435.8.1 COST-231 Line-of-Sight Model 1445.8.2 COST-231 Non-Line-of-Sight Model 1465.8.3 Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) Penetration Model 1475.8.4 Ichitsubo–Okamoto Outdoor-to-Indoor Model (800 MHz–8 GHz) 1485.8.5 Taga–Miura Model Using Identification of Path Passing Through Wall Openings 1495.9 Models for Propagation in Radiating Cables 1505.9.1 Zhang Model 1505.9.2 Carter Model 1515.9.3 Seseña–Aragón–Castañón Model 1525.10 Wideband Channel Characteristics 1535.11 Noise Considerations 1565.11.1 Noise Sources 1575.11.2 Noise Parameters 1575.11.3 Considerations for Indoor Wireless Systems 1585.12 In-Building Planning Tools 1595.12.1 iBwave Design 1595.12.2 WiMap-4G 1605.12.3 Mentum CellPanner 1605.12.4 Atrium 1605.12.5 WinProp 1605.12.6 CellTrace 1615.12.7 EDX Signal Pro 1615.12.8 iBuildNet DAS 1625.12.9 Wireless InSite 1625.13 Conclusion 162References 1636 Antennas 1676.1 The Basics of Antenna Theory 1676.1.1 Conditions for Radiation 1686.1.2 Antenna Regions 1696.2 Antenna Parameters 1706.2.1 Radiation Pattern 1716.2.2 Directivity 1746.2.3 Radiation Resistance and Efficiency 1766.2.4 Power Gain 1776.2.5 Bandwidth 1786.2.6 Reciprocity 1796.2.7 Receiving Antenna Aperture 1806.2.8 Beamwidth 1816.2.9 Cross-Polar Discrimination 1816.2.10 Polarization Matching 1826.3 Antenna Types 1836.3.1 Linear Wire 1836.3.2 Loop 1846.3.3 Antenna Arrays 1866.3.4 Travelling Wave and Broadband 1866.3.5 Microstrip 1876.3.6 Yagi-Uda 1886.3.7 Aperture Antennas 1896.3.8 Horn 1896.3.9 Monopole 1906.3.10 Parabolic Reflector (Dish) 1906.3.11 Smart Antennas 1926.4 Antenna Performance Issues 1936.4.1 Mean Effective Gain (MEG) 1936.4.2 Radiation Pattern Extrapolation 1956.4.3 Reliability of Radiation Patterns 1986.5 Antenna Measurements 1996.6 MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) 2006.7 Examples Of In-Building Antennas 2036.7.1 In-Building Cellular Antenna Requirements 203Contents xi6.7.2 Omnidirectional 2036.7.3 Directional 2066.7.4 Macrocell 2076.7.5 Multiband 2076.7.6 Deployment Considerations 2086.8 Radiating Cables 2086.8.1 Structure 2096.8.2 Applications 2106.8.3 Propagation Modes 2106.8.3.1 Coupled Mode 2106.8.3.2 Radiating Mode 2116.8.4 Parameters 2116.8.4.1 Coupling Loss 2116.8.4.2 Insertion Loss 2116.8.4.3 Bandwidth 2116.8.5 Practical Considerations 2126.9 Conclusion 212References 2127 Radio Measurements 2157.1 The Value of Measurements 2157.1.1 Tuning Empirical Path Loss Models 2167.1.2 Creating Synthetic Channel Models 2187.1.3 Validating Indoor Radio Designs 2187.2 Methodology for Indoor Measurements 2187.2.1 Measurement Campaign Plan 2187.2.2 Preliminary Site Visit 2197.2.3 Site Acquisition and Permissions 2197.2.4 Equipment Checklist 2197.2.5 Measurement Campaign 2197.2.6 Data Postprocessing 2197.2.7 Postvisit to Site 2197.3 Types of Measurement Systems 2207.3.1 Narrowband Measurements 2207.3.1.1 CW Measurements 2217.3.1.2 Code Scanning 2237.3.1.3 Engineering Test Mobiles 2247.3.1.4 Comparative Analysis 2247.3.2 Wideband Measurements 2267.4 Measurement Equipment 2287.4.1 Transmit Equipment 2287.4.2 Receive Rquipment 2297.4.3 Miscellaneous Testing Components 2307.4.4 Buyer’s Guide 2327.5 Types of Indoor Measurement Surveys 2337.5.1 Design Survey 2337.5.2 Existing Coverage 2347.6 Guidelines for Effective Radio Measurements 2357.6.1 Planning Your Measurements: The MCP 2357.6.1.1 Introduction 2367.6.1.2 Objectives 2367.6.1.3 Requirements 2367.6.1.4 Antenna Locations 2377.6.1.5 Walk Test Routes 2387.6.1.6 Workplan 2387.6.1.7 Implications of Not Having an MCP 2387.6.2 Choose a Suitable Navigation System 2387.6.3 Signal Sampling and Averaging Considerations 2417.6.4 Documentation 2457.6.5 Walk Test Best Practice 2467.6.6 Equipment Calibration and Validation 2477.7 Model Tuning and Validation 2507.7.1 Measurements for Model Tuning 2517.7.2 Factors Affecting Model Tuning 2527.7.3 Impact of Having Insufficient Measurements for Tuning 2527.8 Conclusion 254References 2558 Capacity Planning and Dimensioning 2578.1 Introduction 2578.2 An Overview On Teletraffic 2588.2.1 Trunking 2598.2.2 Loss and Queue Networks 2608.2.3 Busy-Hour 2608.3 Capacity Parameters – Circuit-Switched 2608.3.1 Blocking 2608.3.2 Grade of Service 2618.3.3 Traffic per User 2618.3.4 Offered and Carried Traffic 2628.3.5 Traffic Categories 2638.4 Data Transmission Parameters 2648.4.1 Delay 2648.4.2 Throughput 2648.4.3 Latency 2648.5 Capacity Limits 2658.6 Radio Resource Management 2658.7 Load Sharing: Base Station Hotels 2668.8 Traffic Mapping 2678.9 Capacity Calculations 2678.9.1 Service Categories 2688.9.1.1 Service Types 2688.9.1.2 Traffic Classes 2688.9.1.3 Service Category Parameters 2698.9.2 Service Environment 2708.9.3 Radio Environment 2718.9.4 Radio Access Technology Groups (RATGs) 2728.9.5 Methodology Flowchart 2728.9.6 Market Data Analysis 2738.9.7 Traffic Demand Calculation by SE and SC 2748.9.8 Traffic Distribution Amongst RATGs 2758.9.8.1 Distribution Ratios 2768.9.8.2 Distribution of Session Arrival Rates 2788.9.8.3 Offered Traffic 2798.9.9 Carried Traffic Capacity Determination 2798.9.9.1 Circuit-Switched Traffic 2798.9.9.2 Packet-Switched Traffic 2808.10 Wi-Fi Capacity 2808.10.1 The Challenge 2808.10.2 Facts and Figures 2808.10.3 Coverage Design 2828.10.4 Capacity Design 2838.10.5 Additional Challenges 2838.11 Data Offloading Considerations 2848.11.1 Data Offload Using Femtocells 2878.11.2 Data Offload Using Wi-Fi 2878.11.3 Femtocell versus Wi-Fi 2878.11.3.1 Wi-Fi 2878.11.3.2 Femtocells 2888.11.4 Carrier Wi-Fi 2888.11.5 UMA/GAN 2888.11.6 Seamless Authentication 2898.11.7 Turning Wi-Fi into an Operator Network 2898.11.7.1 WBA Next Generation Hotspot 2908.11.7.2 WBA Roaming 2908.11.7.3 WFA Hotspot 2908.11.7.4 ANDSF 2908.11.7.5 I-WLAN 2908.11.8 Discussion 2908.12 Conclusion 291References 2929 RF Equipment and Distribution Systems 2939.1 Base Stations 2939.2 Distributed Antenna Systems 2959.2.1 Passive DAS 2969.2.2 Active DAS 2979.2.3 Hybrid DAS 2999.2.4 Installation 3009.3 RF Miscellaneous – Passive 3009.3.1 Cables 3019.3.2 Splitters/Combiners 3029.3.3 Antennas 3029.3.4 Directional Couplers 3039.3.5 Tappers 3049.3.6 Attenuators 3059.3.7 Circulators 3069.3.8 Terminations/Dummy Loads 3079.3.9 Duplexers 3089.3.10 Diplexers/Triplexers 3089.4 RF Miscellaneous – Active 3089.4.1 Amplifiers 3089.4.2 Active DAS Components 3099.4.2.1 Main Unit 3099.4.2.2 Expansion Unit 3099.4.2.3 Remote Unit 3099.5 Repeaters 3109.5.1 Repeater Deployments 3109.5.1.1 Operator-Deployed Repeaters 3109.5.1.2 Traditional Consumer Repeaters 3119.5.1.3 Intelligent Repeaters 3129.5.2 Disadvantages 3129.5.3 Installation Issues 3129.5.4 Benefits 3149.6 Conclusion 314References 31410 Small Cells 315Simon R. Saunders10.1 What is a Small Cell? 31510.2 Small Cell Species 31610.2.1 Femtocells for Residential Environments 31610.2.2 Picocells 31610.2.3 Metrocells 31710.2.4 Rural and Remote Small Cells 31710.3 The Case for Small Cells 31810.3.1 Capacity 31810.3.2 Coverage 31810.3.3 User Experience 31810.3.4 Cost Effectiveness 31810.4 History and Standards 31810.5 Architecture and Management 32010.6 Coverage, Capacity and Interference 32110.7 Business Case 32310.8 Regulation 32410.9 Small Cells ComparedWith Other IndoorWireless Technologies 32410.9.1 Distributed Antenna Systems (DASs) 32410.9.2 Wi-Fi 32510.9.3 Repeaters and Relay Nodes 32610.10 Market 32610.11 Future: New Architectures and Towards 5G 327References 32711 In-Building Case Studies 331Vladan Jevremovic11.1 Public Venue 33111.1.1 Scenario 33211.1.2 Solution 33211.1.3 Common Design Requirements 33211.1.3.1 Multicarrier (Neutral Host) 33211.1.3.2 Multiband 33311.1.3.3 Multitechnology 33411.1.4 Common Best Practices 33511.1.4.1 Passive Intermodulation (PIM) 33511.1.4.2 Downlink Design 33511.1.4.3 Uplink Design 33611.1.5 Summary 34111.2 Stadium 34111.2.1 Scenario 34211.2.2 Solution 34411.2.3 Design Requirements 34411.2.3.1 RF Coverage 34411.2.3.2 Capacity 34411.2.3.3 Handoff Management 34411.2.3.4 Interference Management 34511.2.4 Site Survey 34511.2.5 Detailed 3-D Modelling 34611.2.6 Sectorization 34811.2.7 Macro Coverage Management 34911.2.8 Passive Intermodulation Management 35011.2.9 Design for Stadium Capacity 35011.2.9.1 Data Capacity Sizing 35211.2.9.2 Voice Capacity Sizing 35811.2.10 RF Coverage Design 36011.2.11 Summary 36111.3 Shopping Centre 36211.3.1 Scenario 36211.3.2 Design Requirements 36311.3.2.1 RF Coverage 36311.3.2.2 Antenna Placement Restrictions 36411.3.3 Solution 36411.3.4 Antenna Choice and Placement 36411.3.5 RF Coverage Design 36511.3.6 Capacity Dimensioning 36711.3.7 Sectorization 37211.3.8 Data Rate Coverage 37211.3.9 Summary 37311.4 Business Campus 37411.4.1 Scenario 37411.4.2 Design Requirements 37511.4.2.1 RF Coverage 37511.4.2.2 Handoff Management 37611.4.2.3 Interference Management 37711.4.3 Solution 37811.4.4 Interference Control 37811.4.5 Lift Coverage 38011.4.6 Detailed RF Coverage Design 38311.4.7 Summary 38511.5 Underground (Subway) 38611.5.1 Scenario 38611.5.2 Design Requirements 38711.5.2.1 RF Coverage 38711.5.2.2 Capacity 38911.5.2.3 Handoff Management 39011.5.3 Solution 39011.5.4 RF Coverage Design 39111.5.5 Capacity 39311.5.5.1 Data 39311.5.5.2 Voice 40011.5.6 Environmental Challenges 40211.5.7 Radio Coverage Maps 40311.5.8 Summary 406References 406Index 409