Positioning in Wireless Communications Systems

Stephan Sand is a senior research engineerat the Institute of Communications and Navigation, German Aerospace Center. He has spent several months on research visits to both NTT DoCoMo R&D, Yokosuka, Japan and the Communication Technology Institute of Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich, Switzerland. Dr Armin Dammann has been head of the Mobile Radio Transmission Group since 2005 at the Institute of Communications and Navigation, German Aerospace Center. Previously to this he was a member of the research staff since 1995. He has published numerous journal articles and conference papers. Christian Mensing formerly of the Institute of Communications and Navigation of the German Aerospace Center (DLR), Germany, and now (2013)? with Rohde and Schwarz. His research interests include location strategies in cellular networks and satellite-based navigation systems, and efficient iterative detection techniques.

• About the Authors ixPreface xiAcknowledgements xiiiList of Abbreviations xv1 Introduction 11.1 Ground Based Positioning Systems 41.1.1 DECCA 41.1.2 LORAN 51.1.3 OMEGA 61.2 Satellite Based Positioning Systems 61.2.1 GPS 81.2.2 GLONASS 111.2.3 Galileo 111.3 GNSS Augmentation Systems 131.3.1 Differential GNSS – DGNSS 141.3.2 Wide Area Augmentation System – WAAS 151.3.3 European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service – EGNOS 161.3.4 Multi-Functional Satellite Augmentation System – MSAS 171.3.5 GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation – GAGAN 171.4 Critical Environments 172 Positioning Principles 212.1 Propagation Time 222.1.1 Time of Arrival – TOA 232.1.2 Time Difference of Arrival – TDOA 262.1.3 Round-Trip Time of Arrival – RTTOA 282.1.4 Comparison of Circular and Hyperbolic Positioning 302.2 Angle of Arrival – AOA 322.2.1 Two-Dimensional 322.2.2 Three-Dimensional 332.2.3 AOA in the Uplink 352.2.4 The Problem of Non-Line-of-Sight Propagation 352.3 Fingerprinting 352.3.1 Cell-ID 362.3.2 Received Signal Strength – RSS 372.3.3 Power Delay Profile – PDP 383 Measurements and Parameter Extraction 413.1 Parameter Estimation 413.1.1 The Estimation Problem 413.1.2 Cramér – Rao Lower Bound – CRLB 433.2 Propagation Time 463.2.1 Cramér – Rao Lower Bound for Time Estimation 473.2.2 Timing Estimation in White Gaussian Noise 513.3 Angle of Arrival – AOA 593.3.1 Uniform Linear Array Antenna 593.3.2 AOA Estimation in Additive White Gaussian Noise 633.3.3 Cramér – Rao Lower Bound for AOA Estimation 654 Position Estimation 694.1 Triangulation 694.1.1 Triangulation with Ideal Measurements 704.1.2 Triangulation with Erroneous Measurements 794.2 Trilateration 824.2.1 Trilateration with Ideal Measurements 834.2.2 Trilateration with Erroneous Measurements 844.3 Multilateration 884.3.1 Multilateration with Ideal Measurements 884.3.2 Multilateration with Erroneous Measurements 914.4 Fingerprinting 934.5 Performance Bounds and Measures 944.5.1 Root Mean Square Error – RMSE 944.5.2 Cumulative Distribution Function – CDF 944.5.3 Circular Error Probability – CEP 944.5.4 Positioning Cramér – Rao Lower Bound – CRLB 954.5.5 Dilution of Precision – DOP 964.5.6 Complexity 995 Position Tracking 1015.1 Kalman Filter 1045.2 Extended Kalman Filter 1085.3 Particle Filter 1115.4 Further Approaches 1155.4.1 Grid-Based Methods 1155.4.2 Second Order Extended Kalman Filter 1175.4.3 Unscented Kalman Filter 1175.4.4 Gaussian Mixture Filter 1175.4.5 Rao – Blackwellization 1185.4.6 Map Matching 1186 Scenarios and Models 1196.1 Scenarios 1196.1.1 Rural Environment 1206.1.2 Urban Environment 1216.1.3 Transition from Outdoor to Indoor 1266.1.4 Indoor Environment 1266.2 Channel Characterization 1276.2.1 Channel Measurements 1276.2.2 Ray Tracing 1276.3 Channel Models 1276.4 Mobility Models 1297 Advanced Positioning Algorithms 1357.1 Hybrid Data Fusion 1357.1.1 General Hybrid Data Fusion Aspects 1357.1.2 Extension of Derived Algorithms to More Sources 1357.1.3 Simulation Results 1377.2 Cooperative Positioning 1397.2.1 General Cooperative Positioning Aspects 1397.2.2 Example for Centralized Cooperative Positioning 1417.2.3 Simulation Results 1447.3 Multipath and Non-Line-of-Sight Mitigation 1448 Systems 1478.1 GSM 1478.1.1 System Parameters 1488.1.2 Measurements 1518.1.3 Timing Advance – TA 1518.1.4 Enhanced Observed Time Difference – EOTD 1528.1.5 Uplink Time of Arrival – UTOA 1548.1.6 Assisted GNSS – AGNSS 1558.1.7 Cramér – Rao Lower Bounds 1568.2 UMTS 1588.2.1 System Parameters 1598.2.2 Measurements 1608.2.3 Cell-ID and Enhanced Cell-ID Based 1628.2.4 Observed Time Difference of Arrival – OTDOA 1638.2.5 Comparison of UMTS and GSM 1658.2.6 Cramér – Rao Lower Bounds 1658.3 3GPP-LTE 1678.3.1 System Parameters 1688.3.2 Measurements 1718.3.3 Synchronization 1738.3.4 Cramér – Rao Lower Bounds 1738.3.5 Performance Results 1798.4 Other Wide and Medium Range Systems 1828.4.1 WiMAX 1828.4.2 WLAN 1838.5 Short Range 1868.5.1 Bluetooth 1868.5.2 ZigBee 1888.5.3 Ultra-Wideband – UWB 1898.5.4 Radio-Frequency Identification and Near Feld Communication – RFID and NFC 1918.6 Standardization 1939 Applications 1979.1 Macro Diversity 1979.1.1 Cellular Diversity 1979.1.2 Location-Based Synchronization for Cellular OFDM 2039.1.3 Position Aware Adaptive Communications Systems 2099.2 Radio Resource Management – RRM 2169.2.1 Location-Based Inter-Cell Interference Coordination – ICIC 2169.2.2 Location-Aided Relay Selection 2199.3 Mobility Management 2239.3.1 Location Assisted Handover Prediction for WiFi and LTE – Algorithm 2249.3.2 Scenario 2259.3.3 Summary of Results 2259.4 Emergency Calls 2269.5 Location-Based Services – LBS 2279.5.1 Mobile and Location Aware Advertising 2289.5.2 Social Networks 2289.5.3 Navigation and Route Planning 2299.5.4 Mobile Gaming 2299.5.5 Disruptive Applications 2299.5.6 Future Applications 230References 233Index 245