Wind Power in Power Systems

Dr Thomas Ackermann, Energynautics GmbH, Langen, GermanyThomas Ackermann is CEO of wind and renewable energies consulting company, Energynautics, which specialises in network integration and power markets. He gained his PhDat KTH (Royal University of Technology), Stockholm, Sweden, where he continues to do wind power freelance lecturing at the Department of Electrical Engineering. He is also involved in education at the University of Zagreb, Croatia, via the EU TEMPUS program. Dr Ackermann's main interests are wind power, distributed power generation, and the impact of market regulations on the development of distributed generation in deregulated markets. Thomas Ackermann is an Editor of Wind Energy Journal (Wiley).

“...a very well-edited update to the previous edition, which was already one of the more thorough overviews of wind integration issues.”  (IEEE Power & Energy Magazine, 1 November 2013)

• Contributors xxxiAbbreviations xlviiNotation lvii1 Introduction 1Thomas Ackermann2 Preface: Wind Power Myths Debunked 7Michael Milligan, Kevin Porter, Edgar DeMeo, Paul Denholm, Hannele Holttinen, Brendan Kirby, Nicholas Miller, Andrew Mills, Mark O’Malley, Matthew Schuerger and Lennart Söder2.1 Can Grid Operators Deal with the Variability of Wind Power? 72.2 Does Wind Power Require Back-up Generation? 82.3 Aren’t More CO2 Emissions Generated with Wind Power in Power Systems than Without, Due to Back-up Requirements? 92.4 Does Wind Power Require Storage? 92.5 Isn’t the Existing Flexibility Already Fully Utilized? 122.6 How Often Does the Wind Stop Blowing Everywhere at the Same Time? 132.7 To What Extent can Wind Power Production be Predicted? 142.8 Is it Expensive to Integrate Wind? 152.9 Doesn’t Wind Power Production Require New Transmission, and won’t that Make Wind Expensive? 162.10 Does Wind Power have Capacity Credit? 162.11 Don’t Wind Power Plants have Low Capacity Factors? 172.12 Is Wind Power Generation Cost-competitive with Coal or Nuclear? 172.13 Is there a Limit to How Much Wind Generation Capacity can be Accommodated by the Grid? 182.14 Summary 19Acknowledgment 20References 20Part A Theoretical Background3 Historical Development and Current Status of Wind Power 23Thomas Ackermann3.1 Introduction 233.2 Historical Background 243.3 Current Status of Wind Power Worldwide 273.4 Status of Wind Turbine Technology 413.5 Conclusions 44Acknowledgments 44References 444 Wind Power in Power Systems: An Introduction 47Lennart Söder and Thomas Ackermann4.1 Introduction 474.2 Power System History 474.3 Current Status of Wind Power in Power Systems 484.4 Network Integration Issues for Wind Power 494.5 Basic Electrical Engineering 504.6 Characteristics of Wind Power Generation 534.7 Basic Integration Issues Related to Wind Power 614.8 Conclusions 68Appendix Mechanical Equivalent to Power System Operation with Wind Power 68A.1 Introduction 69A.2 Active Power Balance 69A.3 Synchronous Machines 69A.4 Asynchronous Machines 69A.5 Power Electronic Interfaces 70A.6 Frequency Control 70A.7 Wind Power 70A.8 Reactive Power Balance 70A.9 Asynchronous Machines 71A.10 Capacitors 71A.11 Synchronous Machines 71A.12 Power Electronic Interfaces 71References 725 Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines 73Anca D. Hansen5.1 Introduction 735.2 State-of-the-Art Technologies 735.3 Generator Concepts 905.4 Power Electronic Concepts 965.5 Power Electronic Solutions in Wind Farms 1005.6 Conclusions 102References 1026 Power System Impacts of Wind Power 105Hannele Holttinen and Ritva Hirvonen6.1 Introduction 1056.2 Operation of the Power System 1066.3 Wind Power Production and the Power System 1106.4 Effects of Wind Energy on the Power System 1186.5 Conclusions 128References 1297 The Value of Wind Power 131Lennart Söder7.1 Introduction 1317.2 The Value of a Power Plant 1317.3 The Value of Wind Power 1327.4 The Market Value of Wind Power 1417.5 Conclusions 154References 155Part B Technical Regulations and Grid Code Validation8 Power Quality Standards for Wind Turbines 159John Olav Tande8.1 Introduction 1598.2 Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines 1608.3 Impact on Voltage Quality 1648.4 Discussion 1718.5 Conclusion 172References 1729 Measurement of Electrical Characteristics 175Fritz Santjer9.1 Introduction 1759.2 Power Quality Measurement Procedures 1769.3 Specification 1789.4 Conclusions 192References 19310 Practical Experience with Power Quality and Wind Power 195Åke Larsson10.1 Introduction 19510.2 Voltage Variations 19510.3 Flicker 19710.4 Harmonics 20310.5 Transients 20410.6 Frequency 20610.7 Conclusions 207References 20811 Technical Regulations for the Interconnection of Wind Power Plants to the Power System 209Julija Matevosyan, Sigrid M. Bolik and Thomas Ackermann11.1 Introduction 20911.2 Overview of Technical Regulations 20911.3 Comparison of Technical Interconnection Regulations 21811.4 New Interconnection Requirements at Wind Plant Level 23311.5 Interconnection Practice 23711.6 Conclusions 238References 23812 Performance Validation and Certification for Grid Codes 241Martin Schellschmidt, Stephan Adloff and Markus Fischer12.1 Introduction 24112.2 History of the Certification Process 24212.3 Steps of the Unit Certification Process 24412.4 Steps in the Plant Certification Process 25012.5 Experience with the Certification Process in Germany 25212.6 Performance Validation in Canada and Spain 25412.7 Conclusions 258References 258Part C Wind Power Plant and Transmission Issues13 Electrical Design of a Wind Power Plant 263Nicholas Miller, Reigh Walling and Richard Piwko13.1 Introduction 26313.2 Wind Plant Collection System Design Objectives 26313.3 Wind Plant Performance Requirements 26513.4 Economic Evaluation Factors 26613.5 Collection System Electrical Design 27013.6 Plant Control and Communication 281References 29214 Transmission Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants and Operation Planning Strategies for Offshore Power Systems 293Thomas Ackermann, Antje Orths and Krzysztof Rudion14.1 Introduction 29314.2 General Electrical Aspects 29714.3 Transmission System to Shore 30114.4 From a Cluster Approach to Offshore Transmission Grid: The Kriegers Flak Project 31214.5 Offshore Grid Systems 31214.6 New System Solutions for Offshore Wind Power Plants 32014.7 Alternative Transmission Solutions 32214.8 Conclusions 322References 32315 New Cable Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants 329Heinrich Brakelmann and Jan Brüggmann15.1 Introduction 32915.2 Technical Background 32915.3 Power Transmission with Bipolar HVAC Cable Systems 33115.4 Voltage Definitions and Transformer Groups 33215.5 Submarine Cable Connections 33415.6 Examples 33715.7 HVAC Bipolar Land Cable Systems 34015.8 Summary 343References 34316 New Control Concept for Offshore Wind Power Plants: Constant-Speed Turbines on a Grid with Variable Frequency 345Eckehard Tröster16.1 Introduction 34516.2 Model 34616.3 Power Limitation 34716.4 The Park-Variable Concept 34716.5 Calculating the Energy Yield 35316.6 Results 35416.7 Conclusion 358References 359Part D International Studies17 Overview of Integration Studies – Methodologies and Results 363Hannele Holttinen17.1 Introduction 36317.2 Wind Integration Study Set-up and Penetration Level of Wind Power 36417.3 Methodologies for Wind Integration Studies 36617.4 Results from Integration Studies 37317.5 Recommendations 38217.6 Conclusions and Future Work 383References 38418 Two Reference Studies on European Transmission for Wind Integration: TradeWind and EWIS 387Frans Van Hulle18.1 Introduction 38718.2 TradeWind 39018.3 The European Wind Integration Study EWIS 39918.4 Future Transmission Needs in Europe from the Studies 40818.5 Concluding Remarks 410Acknowledgments 411References 41119 Transmission Planning for Wind Energy in the USA: Status and Prospects 413J. Charles Smith, Dale Osborn, Richard Piwko, Robert Zavadil, Brian Parsons, Lynn Coles, David Hawkins, Warren Lasher and Bradley Nickell19.1 Introduction 41319.2 Transmission Planning for Energy Resources 41419.3 Regional Planning Efforts: Status and Prospects 41719.4 National Transmission Policy 43119.5 Summary and Conclusions 435Acknowledgments 436References 43620 Wind Power in Areas with Limited Transmission Capacity 439Julija Matevosyan20.1 Introduction 43920.2 Transmission Limits 44020.3 Transmission Capacity: Methods of Determination 44520.4 Measures to Increase Transmission Capacity 44720.5 Impact of Wind Generation on Available Transmission Capacity 45020.6 Alternatives to Grid Reinforcement for the Integration of Wind Power 45220.7 Conclusions 462References 46221 Wind Power and Storage 465Aidan Tuohy and Mark O’Malley21.1 Introduction 46521.2 Storage Technologies 46521.3 Storage for Wind Integration 46821.4 Studies on Operation of Storage in Systems with High Wind Penetration 47321.5 Discussion 48321.6 Conclusions 485References 48522 Economic Aspects of Wind Power in Power Systems 489Poul Erik Morthorst and Thomas Ackermann22.1 Introduction 48922.2 Costs for Network Connection and Network Upgrading 48922.3 System Operation Costs in a Deregulated Market 49622.4 Example of Nord Pool 50022.5 Conclusions 515References 516Part E Power System Integration Experience23 Wind Power in the Danish Power System 519Antje G. Orths and Peter Børre Eriksen23.1 Introduction 51923.2 System Overview 52123.3 Balancing Wind Power in Daily Operation 52523.5 Conclusions and Lessons Learned 546References 54724 Wind Power in the German Network: Present Status and Future Challenges of Maintaining Quality of Supply 549Matthias Luther and Wilhelm Winter24.1 Overview 54924.2 Wind Power Integration in Germany 55024.3 Wind Power Flow Patterns and Reliable System Operation 55324.4 Network Planning and Network Security Issues 55524.6 Requirements to Ensure System Security 56224.7 Summary: Wind Power in the German Network 566Acknowledgments 567References 56725 Wind Integration in Portugal 569Ana Estanqueiro25.1 Introduction 56925.2 The Portuguese Power System 57025.3 Planning the Power System for High Wind Penetration 57325.4 Power System Studies for a Secure Integration of Wind Generation 58125.5 Operational Experience of Extreme Penetration of Wind Power in Portugal 58525.6 Synthesis 593References 59326 Wind Power Integration Experience in Spain 595Juan Ma. Rodríguez García, Olivia Alonso García and Miguel de la Torre Rodríguez26.1 Introduction 59526.2 Wind Capacity in Spain 59726.3 Network Arrangements for Wind Power Development 59926.4 Technical Requirements for Massive Wind Power Integration 60226.5 Market Arrangements for Wind Power Integration 60626.6 Operational Arrangements for Wind Power Integration 60826.7 Future Challenges Associated with Wind Power Integration 61726.8 Conclusions and Lessons Learned 620References 62127 Maximizing Renewable Generation on the Power System of Ireland and Northern Ireland 623Jonathan O’Sullivan27.1 Introduction 62327.2 The Ireland and Northern Ireland Power System 62427.3 Deregulation and the First European Energy Package 62527.4 The Development of Renewable Policy 2020 Targets and Beyond 62927.5 Operational Studies 63227.6 Impact on the Operation of the Power System 63627.7 Programme for a Secure, Sustainable Power System 63827.8 Conclusion 646References 64628 Wind Power in the Power System in Texas 649Henry Durrwachter and Warren Lasher28.1 Overview 64928.2 Wind Development in Texas 65328.3 Wind Integration Issues 65628.4 Market Impacts 66228.5 Lessons Learned 66328.6 Next Steps 664References 66629 Wind Power in the New Zealand Power System 667Ray Brown29.1 Introduction 66729.2 Overview of the New Zealand Power System 66829.3 Overview of Wind Power Installations in New Zealand 67229.4 Technology Progression 67329.5 Case Study: West Wind Wind Farm 67429.6 Case Study: White Hill Wind Farm 68029.7 Future Challenges and the Next Steps 68529.8 Conclusion 687References 68830 Large-Scale Wind Power Integration into the Chinese Power System 689Yongning Chi, Zhen Wang, Yan Li and Weisheng Wang30.1 Introduction 68930.2 Grid Integration Impact of High Wind Power Penetration 69230.3 Solutions for the Grid Integration of Large-scale Wind Power 69630.4 Grid Compliance Testing Technology 70230.5 Smart Grid and Wind Power in China 70430.6 Conclusions 705References 70631 Isolated Systems with Wind Power 707E. Ian Baring-Gould and Per Lundsager31.1 Introduction 70731.2 Isolated Power Systems 70831.3 Detailed Overview of Wind–Diesel Power Systems 71331.4 Systems and Experience 72131.5 Wind Power Impact on Power Quality 72431.6 System Modelling Requirements 72831.7 Issues During the Application of Wind–Diesel Systems 73031.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 734References 73532 Wind Farms in Weak Power Networks in India 739Poul Sørensen32.1 Introduction 73932.2 Network Characteristics 74132.3 Wind Turbine Characteristics 74532.4 Wind Turbine Influence on Grids 74532.5 Grid Influence on Wind Turbines 74832.6 Conclusions 751References 75133 Wind Power Prediction 753Bernhard Ernst33.1 Introduction 75333.2 Forecast Horizons 75433.3 Principle of Wind Power Prediction Tools 75433.4 Day-Ahead Prediction 75633.5 Ensemble Forecast Models/Combination of Forecast Models 75733.6 Nowcasting and Ramp Forecasting 76033.7 Forecast Error Evaluation 76133.8 Lessons Learned during Recent Years 76333.9 Future Challenges 765References 765Part F Dynamic Modelling of Wind Turbines For Power System Studies34 Introduction to the Modelling of Wind Turbines 769Hans Knudsen and Jørgen Nygård Nielsen34.1 Introduction 76934.2 Basic Considerations Regarding Modelling and Simulations 76934.3 Overview of Aerodynamic Modelling 77034.4 Basic Modelling Block Description of Wind Turbines 77734.5 Per Unit Systems and Data for the Mechanical System 78434.6 Different Types of Simulations and Requirements for Accuracy 78834.7 Conclusions 796References 79635 A Generic Wind Power Plant Model 799Abraham Ellis, Yuriy Kazachkov, Juan Sanchez-Gasca, Pouyan Pourbeik, Eduard Muljadi, Michael Behnke, Jens Fortmann and Slavomir Seman35.1 Introduction 79935.2 Power Flow Representation and Equivalencing 80035.3 WECC Generic Dynamic Models 80235.4 Generic Model Validation 81235.5 Known Issues and Areas of Improvement 81735.6 Outlook 819References 81936 Reduced-Order Modelling of Wind Turbines 821Katherine Elkington, J.G. (Han) Slootweg, Mehrdad Ghandhari and Wil L. Kling36.1 Introduction 82136.2 Power System Dynamics Simulation 82136.3 Current Wind Turbine Types 82236.4 Modelling Assumptions 82336.5 Model of a Constant-Speed Wind Turbine 82436.6 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 83236.7 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Synchronous Generator 84036.8 Model Response 84536.9 Conclusions 845References 84537 High-Order Models of Doubly Fed Induction Generators 849Eva Centeno López and Jonas Persson37.1 Introduction 84937.2 Advantages of Using a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 85037.3 The Components of a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 85037.4 Machine Equations 85137.5 Voltage-Source Converter 85937.6 Sequencer 86137.7 Simulation of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator 86137.8 Reducing the Order of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator 86237.9 Conclusions 863References 86438 Full-Scale Verification of Dynamic Wind Turbine Models 865Vladislav Akhmatov38.1 Introduction 86538.2 General Validation Procedure 86638.3 Measured Parameters and Conversion 86838.4 Validation Types 87138.5 Further Validation Specifications 88738.6 Conclusions 888References 88939 Impacts of Wind Power on Power System Stability 891Eknath Vittal, Andrew Keane, J.G. Slootweg and Wil Kling39.1 Power System Stability and Security 89139.2 Rotor Angle Stability 89239.3 Voltage Stability 89739.4 Frequency Stability 90639.5 Dynamic Behaviour of Wind Power Plants 90939.6 Conclusions 911References 91140 Modelling of Large Wind Power Plants 913Vladislav Akhmatov and Björn Andresen40.1 Introduction 91340.2 Detailed Modelling and Short-Term Stability 91540.3 Aggregated Modelling and Fault Ride-Through 92140.4 Wind Power Plant Controllers 92640.5 Conclusions 931References 932Part G Future Issues41 Benefits of Active Management of Distribution Systems 937Goran Strbac, Predrag Djapić, Thomas Bopp and Nick Jenkins41.1 Background 93741.2 Active Management 93841.3 Quantifying the Benefits of Active Management 94141.4 Conclusions 949References 95042 Wind Power and the Smart Grid 951J.G. Slootweg and Thomas Ackermann42.1 Introduction 95142.2 (Trying to) Define Smart Grids 95242.3 Why ‘Smarten’ the Grid? And Why Now (or Why Not)? 95542.4 Goals and Concepts 95742.5 Wind Power and Smart Grids 96242.6 Practical Application: The Danish Cell Controller Pilot Project 96642.7 Conclusions 971Acknowledgments 972References 97243 Reactive Power Capability and Voltage Control with Wind Turbines 975Volker Diedrichs, Alfred Beekmann and Marcel Kruse43.1 Relevance and Design Paradigm 97543.2 Reactive Power Capability of a Wind Turbine 97943.3 Model-Based Design of Voltage Control Systems for Wind Power Plants 98243.4 Performance Demonstration, Model Validation and Contingency Tests 98843.5 Voltage Control of Medium-Voltage Network 989Reference 99744 Hydrogen as a Means of Transporting and Balancing Wind Power Production 999Robert Steinberger-Wilckens44.1 Introduction 99944.2 A Brief Introduction to Hydrogen 100044.3 Technology and Efficiency 100144.4 Reconversion to Electricity: Fuel Cells 100444.5 The Potential of Hydrogen in Wind Energy Storage 100644.6 Hydrogen Applications for Wind Energy Storage 100844.7 A Blueprint for a Hydrogen Distribution System 101244.8 Conclusions 1016Acknowledgments 1016References 1017Index 1019