Introduction to Environmental Analysis

Roger N. Reeve is the author of Introduction to Environmental Analysis, published by Wiley.

"...covers established and innovative methods in the field.." (SciTech Book News, Vol. 26, No. 2, June 2002) "...The approach works well and this book is a good primer on an important subject..." (Laboratory News, July 2002)"...Anyone interested in the topic should give this book a closer look..." (Environmental Geology, October 2002)"...useful to working environmental analysts..." (Industry & Environment, July-December 2002)"...This is an extremely useful book ....Suitable for self-study, the book would be a valuable addition to the library of anyone working in environmental analysis". (Education in Chemistry, July 2003)"...offers all that an instructor or student would desire to have in a text...a good reference for environmental professionals..." (The Chemist, Summer 2003)"...easy-to-read...a wide range of excellent material..." (Metrohm Information Issue, Vol 3 2003)

• Series Preface xiiiPreface xvAcronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols xixAbout the Author xxiii1 Introduction 11.1 The Environment 11.2 Reasons for Concern 21.2.1 Today’s World 41.2.2 Past and Current Crimes 41.3 Pollution 41.4 The Necessity of Chemical Analysis 82 Transport of Pollutants in the Environment and Approaches to their Analysis 112.1 Introduction 112.2 Sources, Dispersal, Reconcentration and Degradation 122.3 Transport and Reconcentration of Neutral Organic Compounds 152.3.1 Bioconcentration 162.3.2 Accumulation in Sediments 172.3.3 Biomagnification 182.3.4 Degradation 192.4 Transport and Reconcentration of Metal Ions 202.4.1 Solubilization 222.4.2 Deposition in Sediments 222.4.3 Uptake by Organisms 222.5 What is a Safe Level? 232.6 Sampling and Sample Variability 242.6.1 Representative Samples 242.6.2 Sample Storage 252.6.3 Critical Paths and Critical Groups 262.7 General Approach to Analysis 262.8 The Choice of Laboratory or Field Analysis 282.9 Quality Assurance 302.9.1 Finding a Suitable Method 322.9.2 Laboratory Standards 333 Water Analysis – Major Constituents 353.1 Introduction 353.2 Sampling 413.3 Measurement of Water Quality 463.3.1 Suspended Solids 463.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen and Oxygen Demand 473.3.3 Total Organic Carbon 543.3.4 pH, Acidity and Alkalinity 553.3.5 Water Hardness 573.3.6 Electrical Conductivity 593.4 Techniques for the Analysis of Common Ions 613.4.1 Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrometry 613.4.2 Emission Spectrometry (Flame Photometry) 683.4.3 Ion Chromatography 693.4.4 Examples of the Use of Other Techniques 734 Water Analysis – Trace Pollutants 774.1 Introduction 774.2 Organic Trace Pollutants 784.2.1 Guidelines for Storage of Samples and their Subsequent Analysis 804.2.2 Extraction Techniques for Chromatographic Analysis 814.2.3 Gas Chromatography 884.2.4 Liquid Chromatography 1014.2.5 Immunoassay 1054.2.6 Spectrometric Methods 1104.3 Metal Ions 1124.3.1 Storage of Samples for Metal Ion Analysis 1124.3.2 Pretreatment 1134.3.3 Atomic Spectrometry 1144.3.4 Visible Spectrometry 1244.3.5 Anodic Stripping Voltammetry 1254.3.6 Liquid Chromatography 1284.3.7 Metal Speciation: A Comparison of Techniques 1315 Analysis of Land, Solids and Waste 1355.1 Introduction 1355.2 Common Problem Areas in the Analysis of Solids 1385.2.1 Sampling 1385.2.2 Pretreatment 1395.2.3 Extraction of the Analyte 1405.2.4 Sample Clean-up 1405.2.5 Analytical Determination 1415.2.6 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 1415.3 Specific Considerations for the Analysis of Biological Samples 1425.3.1 Sampling and Storage of Plant Material 1425.3.2 Pretreatment 1425.3.3 Extraction Techniques for Organic Contaminants 1445.3.4 Ashing and Dissolution Techniques for Trace Metals 1455.3.5 Analysis of Animal Tissues 1465.4 Specific Considerations for the Analysis of Soils 1465.4.1 Sampling and Storage 1465.4.2 Pretreatment 1485.4.3 Extraction of Organic Contaminants 1485.4.4 Extraction of Available Ions 1495.4.5 Dissolution Techniques for the Determination of Total Metal Concentrations in Soil 1505.4.6 Determination of pH 1505.5 Specific Considerations for the Analysis of Contaminated Land 1515.5.1 Steps in the Investigation of Contaminated Land 1525.5.2 Sampling, Sample Storage and Pretreatment 1545.6 Specific Considerations for the Analyses Involved in Waste and its Disposal by Landfill 1565.6.1 Types of Waste and their Disposal 1565.6.2 Sampling and Storage 1585.6.3 Pretreatment of Solids and Liquids with a High Solid Content 1605.6.4 Analysis of Leachate 1615.6.5 Introduction to Gaseous Emissions 1645.7 Specific Considerations for the Analysis of Sediments and Sewage Sludge 1655.7.1 Sampling and Storage 1655.7.2 Pretreatment 1655.7.3 Extraction Techniques for Organic Contaminants 1675.7.4 Dissolution Techniques for Trace Metals 1675.7.5 Analysis of Sewage Sludge 1685.8 New Extraction and Dissolution Techniques 1685.8.1 Automated Soxhlet 1695.8.2 Accelerated Solvent Extraction 1695.8.3 Microwave Digestion and Microwave-Assisted Extraction 1695.8.4 Sonication 1705.8.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 1705.8.6 Comparison of the Techniques 1726 Atmospheric Analysis – Gases 1756.1 Introduction 1756.1.1 A Note on Units 1816.2 Determination of Time-Weighted Average Concentrations 1836.2.1 Absorption Trains 1836.2.2 Solid Adsorbents 1866.2.3 Diffusion (or Palmes) Tubes 1896.3 Determination of Instantaneous Concentrations 1916.3.1 Direct-Reading Instruments 1916.3.2 Gas Detector Tubes 1996.3.3 Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry 2016.3.4 Monitoring Networks and Real-Time Monitoring 2056.3.5 Remote Sensing and other Advanced Techniques 2067 Atmospheric Analysis – Particulates 2137.1 Introduction 2137.2 Sampling Methods 2167.2.1 High-Volume Samplers 2167.2.2 Personal Samplers 2177.2.3 Cascade Impactors 2187.2.4 Further Considerations for Organic Compounds 2197.2.5 Sampling Particulates in Flowing Gas Streams 2207.2.6 PM 10 Sampling 2227.2.7 Sampling of Acid Deposition 2247.3 Analytical Methods Involving Sample Dissolution 2257.3.1 Metals 2257.3.2 Organic Compounds 2267.4 Direct Analysis of Solids 2277.4.1 X-Ray Fluorescence 2277.4.2 X-Ray Emission 2297.4.3 Neutron Activation Analysis 2307.4.4 Infrared Spectrometry 2307.4.5 Methods for Asbestos Analysis 2308 Ultra-Trace Analysis 2338.1 Introduction 2338.1.1 What Groups of Compounds are We Discussing? 2348.2 Analytical Methods 2368.2.1 General Considerations 2368.2.2 Factors Affecting Detection Sensitivity 2378.2.3 Mass Spectrometric Detection 2398.2.4 Quantification 2458.2.5 Quality Control 2468.3 A Typical Analytical Scheme 2468.3.1 Pretreatment 2488.3.2 Gas Chromatography 250Responses to Self-Assessment Questions 253Bibliography 273Glossary of Terms 279Units of Measurement and Physical Constants 285Periodic Table 291Index 293