Mycoremediation

HARBHAJAN SINGH has a PhD in environmental engineering and is also a Registered Environmental Professional (REP) by the National Registry of Environmental Professionals. He currently works as an Environmental Engineer at the United States Environmental Protection Agency in Atlanta, Georgia. He has extensive experience on various aspects of mycoremediation, including fungal metabolism, ecology, biotechnology, and bioreactors and is a member of the International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation Society, International Water Association, and Mycological Society of America.

"Useful for students, newcomers to the field, and teachers." (Mycological Research, July 2009) "If you want to know about the latest in mycoengineering technologies, or what your mycoreactor should look like, this is the reference you've been looking for. Those interested in the theoretical underpinnings of mycoremediation, fungal metabolism or modeling approaches to fungal physiology will also learn much from this monumental work." (Inoculum, May 2008)"The book is unique in its form, since it is the first encyclopedic examination of this topic ... .This book is recommended for scientists, engineers, regulatory experts and students working in the field of bioremediation and should be present in all libraries of universities and offices involved in waste management." (International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, January 2008)"A well written, extremely well referenced, comprehensive treatment of a formerly ... undeveloped topic." (Journal of Hazardous Materials, June 1, 2007)"For the first time, readers have a single, cohesive presentation of the current state of the science that will serve as a springboard for future research and new innovations." (Journal of the American Water Resources Association, April 2007)

• Preface xix1 Introduction 11.1 Fungal Biodegradation and Biodeterioration 21.2 How a Fungus Escapes Water to Grow in Air 31.3 Fungal Morphology Analysis and Growth Measurement 31.3.1 Fungal Morphology 31.3.2 Analysis of Fungal Morphology 41.3.3 Pellet Formation and Structure 51.3.4 Growth Measurement 61.4 Mass Transfer Growth Kinetics and Bioreactors 71.5 Methods for Detection of Degradative Fungi 101.5.1 Immunological Assays 101.5.2 Molecular Assays 111.6 Fungi as Environmental Indicators 131.7 Fungal Attack on Coal 141.8 Thermophilic Alpine and Lichen-Forming Fungi 151.9 Mycoremediation: Fungal Bioremediation 161.9.1 White-Rot Fungi in Bioremediation 161.10 Ecology of Mycoremediation 181.11 Genetic Engineering of Mycoremediation 19References 202 Fungal Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters 292.1 Introduction 292.2 Alternative Industrial Wastewater Bioreactors 302.3 Fungal Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters 312.3.1 Starch-Processing Wastewater 322.3.1.1 Background 322.3.1.2 Composition and Characteristics 332.3.1.3 Bioreactors and Fermentation 332.3.1.4 Enzyme Treatment 342.3.1.5 Production of Fungal Protein 352.3.2 Dairy Industry Wastewater 362.3.2.1 Background 362.3.2.2 Bioreactors and Modeling 372.3.2.3 Production of Fungal Biomass 392.3.2.4 Lactases 402.3.2.5 Genetics of Lactose Utilization 402.3.3 Pharmaceutical Industry Wastewater 412.3.3.1 Background 412.3.3.2 Process Development 422.3.3.3 Conclusions 422.3.4 Protein-Containing Wastewater 422.3.4.1 Background 422.3.4.2 Bioreactors 432.3.5 Oil Manufacturing Plant Wastewater 442.3.5.1 Background 442.3.5.2 Assay of Oil-Decomposing Ability 452.3.5.3 Bioreactors 452.3.6 Silage Wastewater 472.3.6.1 Background 472.3.6.2 Legislation 482.3.6.3 Growth of Fungi 482.3.6.4 On-Farm Treatment 502.3.6.5 Production of Fungal Biomass 502.3.7 Acidogenic Wastewater 502.3.7.1 Background 502.3.7.2 Bioreactors and Modeling 512.3.8 Olive Mill Wastewater 532.3.8.1 Background 532.3.8.2 Composition and Characteristics 542.3.8.3 Fermentation 542.3.8.4 Modeling 572.3.8.5 Immobilization 572.3.8.6 Enzyme Treatment 592.3.8.7 Toxicity Testing 602.3.8.8 Economic Importance 612.4 Biotechnology 622.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 63References 633 Fungal Treatment of Distillery and Brewery Wastes 763.1 Introduction 763.2 Composition and Characteristics of Stillage 773.3 Alternative Industrial Stillage Treatment Reactors 783.4 Fungal Treatment of Distillery and Brewery Wastes 803.5 Fungal Fermentation and Decolorization 803.5.1 Yeasts 813.5.2 Filamentous Fungi 843.5.3 White-Rot Fungi 853.5.4 Mixed Cultures 863.6 Molasses Toxicity to Fungi 873.7 Factors Affecting Fungal Fermentation and Decolorization 873.7.1 Carbon Source 893.7.2 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Sources 893.7.3 Temperature 903.7.4 pH 903.7.5 Agitation and Aeration 903.7.6 Inoculum Size 913.7.7 Effluent Dilution Rate 913.8 Mechanisms of Melanoidin Degradation 923.9 Fungal Bioreactors for Distillery and Brewery Wastes 933.9.1 Fed-Batch Bioreactors 953.9.2 Bubble Column Bioreactors 953.9.3 Fluidized-Bed Bioreactors 953.9.4 Immobilized Bioreactors 963.10 Modeling 973.11 Economic Importance 983.11.1 Single-Cell Protein Production 983.11.2 Ethanol Production 993.11.3 Bioproducts 1013.11.4 Algal Production 1033.12 Biotechnology 1033.13 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 104References 1064 Fungal Metabolism of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 1154.1 Introduction 1154.2 Fate of Oil in the Environment 1164.3 Composition of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 1174.4 Methods of Analysis of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 1174.5 Alternative Treatment Technologies 1194.6 Hydrocarbon-Utilizing Yeasts and Fungi 1194.7 Fungal Methods of Assessment 1214.7.1 Fungal Enumeration 1224.7.2 Respirometric Tests 1234.7.3 Soil Microcosm Tests 1234.7.4 Miscellaneous Tests 1244.8 Hydrocarbon Metabolism by Yeasts and Fungi 1244.9 Taxonomic Relationship of Hydrocarbon-Utilizing Yeasts and Fungi 1294.10 Factors Affecting Metabolism of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 1304.10.1 Physical Nature 1304.10.2 Temperature 1304.10.3 pH 1314.10.4 Oxygen 1314.10.5 Nutrients Dispersants and Biosurfactants 1314.11 Fungal Mechanisms of Metabolism of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 1324.11.1 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 1334.11.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1344.11.3 Cooxidation of Hydrocarbons 1344.11.4 Uptake of Hydrocarbons 1344.12 Oxidation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Fungal Enzymes 1354.13 Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Systems 1364.14 Economic Importance 1374.14.1 Single-Cell Protein 1374.14.2 Surfactant Production 1374.14.3 Metabolite Overproduction 1384.15 Biotechnology and Bioengineering 1394.16 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 140References 1405 Fungal Degradation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Dioxins 1495.1 Introduction 1495.2 Nomenclature 1505.3 Bioaccumulation and Toxicity 1505.4 Alternative PCB Remediation Technologies 1515.5 Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 1515.6 Bioavailability of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 1535.7 Fungal Degradation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 1545.7.1 Filamentous Fungi 1545.7.2 Yeasts 1565.7.3 White-Rot Fungi 1585.7.3.1 White-Rot Fungal Bioreactors 1585.7.3.2 Degradation and Mineralization 1595.7.3.3 Effects of Chlorination Grades and Patterns 1625.7.3.4 Metabolic Products and Pathways 1635.7.3.5 Role of Manganese in PCB Biodegradation 1675.7.3.6 PCB Bioremediation in Soils 1675.7.3.7 Biotransformation of PCBs by Laccases 1695.7.3.8 Comparison with Bacterial Systems 1715.8 Fungal Degradation of Dioxins 1725.9 Genetic Manipulation 1735.10 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 173References 1746 Fungal Degradation of Pesticides 1816.1 Introduction 1816.2 Classification 1826.3 Biosensors for Detection of Pesticides 1826.4 Fungal Degradation of Insecticides 1846.4.1 Chlorinated Compounds 1846.4.2 Organophosphorus Compounds 1896.4.3 Miscellaneous Compounds 1906.5 Fungal Degradation of Herbicides 1906.5.1 Phenoxyalkanoate Compounds 1906.5.2 Phenylamide Compounds 1946.5.2.1 Acylanilides 1946.5.2.2 Phenylureas 1956.5.2.3 Phenylcarbamates 1976.5.3 s-Triazine Compounds 1986.5.4 Miscellaneous Compounds 1996.6 Fungal Degradation of Fungicides 1996.6.1 Organomercurial Compounds 2006.6.2 Organosulfur Compounds 2006.6.3 Organophosphorus Compounds 2036.6.4 Aromatic and Heterocyclic Compounds 2036.7 Biotransformation of Pesticides by Fungal Enzymes 2036.8 Genetic Manipulation 2056.9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 207References 2087 Fungal Metabolism of Phenols Chlorophenols and Pentachlorophenol 2157.1 Introduction 2157.2 Alternative Treatment Technologies 2167.2.1 Physicochemical Methods 2167.2.2 Biological Methods 2177.2.2.1 Metabolism by Bacteria 2177.2.2.2 Metabolism by Actinomycetes 2187.2.2.3 Metabolism by Algae and Higher Plants 2187.3 Fungal Biosensors for Determination of Various Types of Phenols 2197.3.1 Enzyme-Based Systems 2197.3.2 Biological Affinity Assays (Immunoassays) 2217.4 Methods of Analysis of Various Types of Phenols 2217.5 Fungal Bioreactors for Removal of Various Types of Phenols 2217.5.1 Rotating Tube Bioreactors 2227.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors 2227.5.3 Packed-Bed/Immobilized Bioreactors 2227.5.4 Upflow Column Bioreactors 2257.5.5 Miscellaneous Bioreactors 2267.6 Fungal Metabolism of Phenols Chlorophenols and Pentachlorophenol 2267.6.1 Fungal Metabolism of Phenols 2267.6.2 Fungal Metabolism of Chlorophenols 2307.6.3 Fungal Metabolism of Pentachlorophenol 2307.7 Factors Affecting Fungal Metabolism of Various Types of Phenols 2317.7.1 Effect of Static Versus Agitated Culture Conditions 2317.7.2 Effect of Culture Age Type of Inoculum and Carbon and Nitrogen Sources 2347.8 Physiological Alterations of Fungi by Phenols 2357.9 Taxonomic Relationship of Phenol-Utilizing Yeasts and Fungi 2367.10 Mechanisms of Metabolism Metabolic Pathways and Metabolites 2377.11 Degradation of Phenols by Fungal Enzymes 2457.11.1 Peroxidase-Catalyzed Degradation 2467.11.1.1 Peroxidase Bioreactors 2467.11.2 Polyphenol Oxidase/Tyrosinase-Catalyzed Degradation 2507.11.2.1 Polyphenol Oxidase/Tyrosinase Bioreactors 2517.11.3 Laccase-Catalyzed Degradation 2537.11.3.1 Influence of Cosubstrates 2577.11.3.2 Laccase Bioreactors 2587.11.4 Miscellaneous Enzymes 2597.12 Fungal Transformation of Pentachlorophenol in Soils 2617.12.1 Bound Residue Formation 2617.12.2 Degradation and Mineralization 2637.12.3 Fungal Augmentation 2647.13 Cytochrome P450 Systems in Degradation of Phenols 2657.14 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 266References 2678 Fungal Metabolism of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 2838.1 Introduction 2838.2 Occurrence of PAHs in the Environment 2848.3 Alternative PAH Metabolism 2858.3.1 Bacteria 2858.3.2 Algae Cyanobacteria and Higher Plants 2878.4 Fungal Metabolism of PAHs 2878.4.1 Fungal Metabolism of Naphthalene 2968.4.2 Fungal Metabolism of Acenaphthene 2968.4.3 Fungal Metabolism of Anthracene 2968.4.4 Fungal Metabolism of Phenanthrene 2978.4.5 Fungal Metabolism of Fluorene 2988.4.6 Fungal Metabolism of Fluoranthene 3008.4.7 Fungal Metabolism of Chrysene 3008.4.8 Fungal Metabolism of Pyrene 3028.4.9 Fungal Metabolism of Benz[a]anthracene 3048.4.10 Fungal Metabolism of Benzo[a]pyrene 3058.5 Mutagenicity of Fungal Metabolites of PAHs 3068.6 Fungal Bioreactors for Removal of PAHs 3068.6.1 Immobilized Bioreactors 3078.6.2 Closed-Batch Feed Bioreactors 3078.6.3 Compost Bioreactors 3108.6.4 Miscellaneous Bioreactors 3118.7 PAH Degradation by Fungal Enzymes 3118.7.1 Peroxidase-Catalyzed Degradation 3128.7.1.1 Role of Miscible Solvents 3148.7.1.2 Influence of Cyclodextrins 3158.7.2 Laccase-Catalyzed Degradation 3168.7.2.1 Laccase Bioreactors 3198.7.2.2 Influence of Mediators 3198.7.3 Miscellaneous Enzymes 3208.8 Cytochrome P450 in Degradation of PAHs 3228.9 Fungal Degradation of PAHs in Soils 3238.9.1 Influence of Cosubstrates and Surfactants 3248.9.2 Fate of PAH Disappearance 3308.9.2.1 PAH Degradation and Mineralization 3308.9.2.2 Bound Residue Formation 3338.9.3 Factors Affecting Biodegradation of PAHs 3348.10 Fungal Metabolism of Complex PAH Mixtures 3358.11 PAH Degradation by Fungal–Bacterial Co-cultures 3368.12 Biotechnology and Bioengineering 3378.13 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 339References 3409 Fungal Lignin Degradation and Decolorization of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents 3579.1 Introduction 3579.2 Distribution and Structure of Lignin 3589.3 Lignin-Degrading Microorganisms 3609.3.1 Bacterial Degradation 3609.3.2 Fungal Degradation 3609.4 Fungal Lignin-Degrading Enzymes 3629.4.1 Lignin Peroxidases 3639.4.2 Manganese Peroxidases 3689.4.3 Laccases 3729.4.4 Hydrogen Peroxide–Producing Enzymes 3759.4.5 Reactive Oxygen Species 3789.4.6 Miscellaneous Enzymes 3809.5 Mechanisms of Fungal Lignin Degradation and Metabolic Products 3819.6 Fungal Decolorization of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents 3829.7 Fungal Bioreactors for Decolorization of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents 3849.7.1 Batch and Continuous Bioreactors 3849.7.2 Upflow Column Bioreactors 3879.7.3 Immobilized Bioreactors 3889.7.4 Miscellaneous Bioreactors 3899.8 Factors Affecting Decolorization of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents 3919.8.1 Carbon Cosubstrate 3919.8.2 Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulfur and Chloride Concentrations 3919.8.3 Hydrogen Ion Concentration and Temperature 3959.8.4 Dilution of Effluent 3959.8.5 Inoculum Dose and Nature 3959.8.6 Static Versus Agitated Culture Conditions 3969.9 Effect of Fungal Treatment on Chlorophenols and Chloroaldehydes in Effluents 3969.10 Decolorization of Effluents by Fungal Enzymes 3979.11 Wetlands Treatment 3999.12 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 399References 40010 Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 42010.1 Introduction 42010.2 Classification Structure and Color Measurements 42110.3 Legislation and Regulations 42210.4 Alternative Decolorization Treatment Technologies 42310.4.1 Physicochemical Methods 42310.4.2 Biological Methods 42510.4.2.1 Degradation by Bacteria 42510.4.2.2 Degradation by Actinomycetes 42510.4.2.3 Degradation by Algae and Higher Plants 42510.5 Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 42610.5.1 Azo Dyes 42610.5.2 Phthalocyanine Dyes 43410.5.3 Anthraquinone Dyes 43410.5.4 Heterocyclic Dyes 43510.5.5 Indigo Dyes 43510.5.6 Polymeric Dyes 43510.5.7 Triphenylmethane Dyes 43510.6 Yeast Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 43610.7 White-Rot Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 43810.8 Mechanisms of Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 43810.9 Metabolic Products and Pathways 44010.10 Factors Affecting Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 44210.10.1 Media Composition 44310.10.2 Static Versus Agitated Culture Conditions 44710.10.3 pH and Temperature 44710.10.4 C and N Sources TOC/N Ratio and Salts 44710.10.5 Initial Dye Concentration 44810.11 Fungal Dye Decolorization and Degradation Bioreactors 44810.11.1 Rotating Drum Stirred-Tank and Membrane Bioreactors 45210.11.2 Packed- and Fluidized-Bed Bioreactors 45210.11.3 Immobilized Bioreactors 45310.12 Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes by Fungal Enzymes 45410.12.1 Peroxidase-Catalyzed Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 45510.12.1.1 Peroxidase Bioreactors 46110.12.2 Laccase-Catalyzed Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 46210.12.2.1 Laccase Bioreactors 46610.12.2.2 Influence of Mediators 46710.13 Decolorization of Artificial Textile Effluent 46710.14 Sequential Dye Decolorization 47010.15 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 470References 47211 Fungal Biosorption of Heavy Metals 48411.1 Introduction 48411.2 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals 48511.3 Evaluation of Sorption Performance 48611.4 Mechanisms of Fungal Biosorption of Heavy Metals 48711.5 Fungal Biosorption Reactors for Heavy Metals 49111.5.1 Types of Reactors 49111.5.1.1 Batch Stirred-Tank Reactors 49111.5.1.2 Continuous-Flow Stirred-Tank Reactors 49111.5.1.3 Fixed Packed-Bed Reactors 49111.5.1.4 Immobilized Reactors 49111.5.2 Models of Process Development 49611.5.3 Desorption and Regeneration 49811.5.4 Effect of Effluent Composition 49911.6 Applications of Fungal Biosorption of Heavy Metals 49911.6.1 Biosorption by Filamentous Fungi 49911.6.2 Biosorption by White-Rot Fungi 50411.6.3 Biosorption by Yeasts 50511.6.4 Biosorption by Aspergillus niger 50711.6.4.1 Role in Soil Bioremediation 50911.7 Fungal Biosorption of Herbicides and Phenols 50911.8 Fungal Biosorption of Dyes 51211.9 Fungal Binary and Ternary Biosorption Systems 51211.9.1 Binary Biosorption Systems 51211.9.2 Ternary Biosorption Systems 51511.9.3 Effect of Co-cations 51611.10 Biosorption of Heavy Metal Anions 51611.11 Metal Ion Resistance 51711.12 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 518References 51912 Mycorrhizal Fungi in Rhizosphere Remediation 53312.1 Introduction 53312.2 Classification of Mycorrhizal Fungi 53412.3 Functions of Mycorrhizal Mycelium 53512.4 Methods for Studying Mycorrhizal Fungi 53612.5 Molecular Mechanisms of Mycorrhizal Symbiosis 53812.6 Metabolism of Mycorrhizal Fungi 53912.6.1 General Metabolism 53912.6.2 Degradative Metabolism 53912.7 Uptake of Toxic Metals 54112.7.1 Metal Tolerance in Mycorrhizal Symbiosis 54112.7.2 Mechanisms of Response to Metals 54312.7.3 Transport of Radionuclides 54512.7.4 Genetics of Metal Tolerance 54712.8 Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degradation 54712.9 Lignin and Phenolic Degradation 54912.10 PAH and TNT Degradation 55212.11 PCB Degradation 55512.12 Herbicide Degradation 55512.13 Comparison of Mycorrhizal and White-Rot Fungi 55612.14 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 558References 559Index 573