DAVID PRUTCHI, PhD, is Vice President of Engineering at Impulse Dynamics. An adept do-it-yourselfer, he is dedicated to bringing cutting-edge experimental physics within the grasp of fellow science buffs. In addition to being the lead author of Design and Development of Medical Electronic Instrumentation (Wiley), he has published over 30 scientific publications and holds over 70 patents.SHANNI R. PRUTCHI is a high-school junior at Jack M. Barrack Hebrew Academy in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. An avid science and engineering enthusiast, she conducts research with her father in the areas of radio astronomy and quantum physics.

“This unique book can also be highly recommended as supplementary reading, even in the absence of actual ‘hands-on’ participation in the many projects described.”  (Contemporary Physics, 6 December 2013

• Introduction xi Prologue xvImportant Disclaimer and Warnings xixAcknowledgments xxiiiAbout the Authors xxv1 LIGHT AS AWAVE 1Newton’s View: Light Consists of Particles 1Young’s Interference of Light 3Automatic Scanning of Interference Patterns 6The Final Nail in the Coffin for Newton’s Theory of Light 8Light as an Electromagnetic Wave 9Polarization 11Optics with 3-cm Wavelength “Light” 11Real-World Behaviors 16Double-Slit Interference with Microwaves 17The Doppler Effect 18Experiments and Questions 202 LIGHT AS PARTICLES 23The Seed of Quantum Physics: Planck’s Formula 27The Photoelectric Effect 28Can we Detect Individual Photons? 36Low-Cost PMT Power Supplies 38Listening to Individual Photons 41Where does this Leave Us? 45Experiments and Questions 453 ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY 49The Need for Vacuum 49The Mechanical Vacuum Pump 51The Vacuum Gauge 53A Very-High-Voltage Power Supply 56A Vacuum Tube Legow Set 56Phosphor Screens 59The Electron Gun 60The Discovery of the Electron 61Cathode-Ray Tubes 63Thomson’s First 1897 Experiment—Negative Charge and Rays are Joined Together 65Thomson’s Second Experiment—Electrostatic Deflection of Cathode Rays 67Thomson and the Modern CRT 69Thomson’s Third Experiment—Mass-to-Charge Ratio of the Electron 72Measuring e/m with our CRT 74A Magical Measurement of e/m 77Thomson’s “Plum Pudding” Model of the Atom 79Geiger–Mu¨ller Counter 80a, b, and g 89The Nature of Beta Radiation 92The Ionizing Power of Alpha 92What are Alpha Particles? 95Rutherford’s Alpha-Scattering Experiment 96Rutherford’s Planetary Model of the Atom 102Experiments and Questions 1034 THE PRINCIPLE OF QUANTUM PHYSICS 107Emission Spectroscopy 107Bohr’s Spark of Genius 113Orbitals and Not Orbits 115Quantization—The Core of Quantum Physics 117Experiments and Questions 1185 WAVE–PARTICLE DUALITY 121Gamma-Ray Spectrum Analysis 122What is the Nature of Light? 126Two-Slit Interference with Single Photons 128Imaging Single Photons 133The Answer: Complementarity 135Matter Waves 137Matter Waves and the Bohr Atom 137Experimental Confirmation of De Broglie’s Matter Waves 138Two-Slit Interference with Single Electrons 142A Simple TEM 144Blurring the Line Between Quantum and Classical 148Particle–Wave Duality in the Macroscopic World 148Experiments and Questions 1496 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 151Wavefunctions 151The Uncertainty Principle 153Experimental Demonstration of the Uncertainty Principle 155Time–Energy Uncertainty 159Fourier Analysis 159Bye, Bye Clockwork Universe 163Experiments and Questions 1657 SCHRO¨ DINGER (AND HIS ZOMBIE CAT) 167Real-World Particle in a Box 171Quantum Tunneling 174Quantum Tunneling Time 178Many-Worlds Interpretation 183Schro¨dinger’s Cat in the Lab 184Beam Splitters 186Who Rolls the Dice? 190The Mach–Zehnder Interferometer 192“Which-Way” Experiments 197The Quantum Eraser 199Experiments and Questions 2008 ENTANGLEMENT 203Bell’s Inequalities 205An Entangled-Photon Source 211Detecting Entangled Photons 214High-Purity Single-Photon Source 219Testing Bell’s Inequality 220Closing the Loopholes 225The Age of Quantum Information 226A Quantum Random-Number Generator 228Quantum Information 229Quantum Teleportation 230Faster-Than-Light Communication 236Quantum Cryptography 237Quantum Computing and Technologies for the Future 240Experiments and Questions 242REFERENCES 245SOURCES FOR MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 249ABBREVIATIONS 255INDEX 257

DAVID PRUTCHI, PhD, is Vice President of Engineering at Impulse Dynamics. An adept do-it-yourselfer, he is dedicated to bringing cutting-edge experimental physics within the grasp of fellow science buffs. In addition to being the lead author of Design and Development of Medical Electronic Instrumentation (Wiley), he has published over 30 scientific publications and holds over 70 patents.SHANNI R. PRUTCHI is a high-school junior at Jack M. Barrack Hebrew Academy in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. An avid science and engineering enthusiast, she conducts research with her father in the areas of radio astronomy and quantum physics.

“This unique book can also be highly recommended as supplementary reading, even in the absence of actual ‘hands-on’ participation in the many projects described.”  (Contemporary Physics, 6 December 2013

• Introduction xi Prologue xvImportant Disclaimer and Warnings xixAcknowledgments xxiiiAbout the Authors xxv1 LIGHT AS AWAVE 1Newton’s View: Light Consists of Particles 1Young’s Interference of Light 3Automatic Scanning of Interference Patterns 6The Final Nail in the Coffin for Newton’s Theory of Light 8Light as an Electromagnetic Wave 9Polarization 11Optics with 3-cm Wavelength “Light” 11Real-World Behaviors 16Double-Slit Interference with Microwaves 17The Doppler Effect 18Experiments and Questions 202 LIGHT AS PARTICLES 23The Seed of Quantum Physics: Planck’s Formula 27The Photoelectric Effect 28Can we Detect Individual Photons? 36Low-Cost PMT Power Supplies 38Listening to Individual Photons 41Where does this Leave Us? 45Experiments and Questions 453 ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY 49The Need for Vacuum 49The Mechanical Vacuum Pump 51The Vacuum Gauge 53A Very-High-Voltage Power Supply 56A Vacuum Tube Legow Set 56Phosphor Screens 59The Electron Gun 60The Discovery of the Electron 61Cathode-Ray Tubes 63Thomson’s First 1897 Experiment—Negative Charge and Rays are Joined Together 65Thomson’s Second Experiment—Electrostatic Deflection of Cathode Rays 67Thomson and the Modern CRT 69Thomson’s Third Experiment—Mass-to-Charge Ratio of the Electron 72Measuring e/m with our CRT 74A Magical Measurement of e/m 77Thomson’s “Plum Pudding” Model of the Atom 79Geiger–Mu¨ller Counter 80a, b, and g 89The Nature of Beta Radiation 92The Ionizing Power of Alpha 92What are Alpha Particles? 95Rutherford’s Alpha-Scattering Experiment 96Rutherford’s Planetary Model of the Atom 102Experiments and Questions 1034 THE PRINCIPLE OF QUANTUM PHYSICS 107Emission Spectroscopy 107Bohr’s Spark of Genius 113Orbitals and Not Orbits 115Quantization—The Core of Quantum Physics 117Experiments and Questions 1185 WAVE–PARTICLE DUALITY 121Gamma-Ray Spectrum Analysis 122What is the Nature of Light? 126Two-Slit Interference with Single Photons 128Imaging Single Photons 133The Answer: Complementarity 135Matter Waves 137Matter Waves and the Bohr Atom 137Experimental Confirmation of De Broglie’s Matter Waves 138Two-Slit Interference with Single Electrons 142A Simple TEM 144Blurring the Line Between Quantum and Classical 148Particle–Wave Duality in the Macroscopic World 148Experiments and Questions 1496 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 151Wavefunctions 151The Uncertainty Principle 153Experimental Demonstration of the Uncertainty Principle 155Time–Energy Uncertainty 159Fourier Analysis 159Bye, Bye Clockwork Universe 163Experiments and Questions 1657 SCHRO¨ DINGER (AND HIS ZOMBIE CAT) 167Real-World Particle in a Box 171Quantum Tunneling 174Quantum Tunneling Time 178Many-Worlds Interpretation 183Schro¨dinger’s Cat in the Lab 184Beam Splitters 186Who Rolls the Dice? 190The Mach–Zehnder Interferometer 192“Which-Way” Experiments 197The Quantum Eraser 199Experiments and Questions 2008 ENTANGLEMENT 203Bell’s Inequalities 205An Entangled-Photon Source 211Detecting Entangled Photons 214High-Purity Single-Photon Source 219Testing Bell’s Inequality 220Closing the Loopholes 225The Age of Quantum Information 226A Quantum Random-Number Generator 228Quantum Information 229Quantum Teleportation 230Faster-Than-Light Communication 236Quantum Cryptography 237Quantum Computing and Technologies for the Future 240Experiments and Questions 242REFERENCES 245SOURCES FOR MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 249ABBREVIATIONS 255INDEX 257

DAVID PRUTCHI, PhD, is Vice President of Engineering at Impulse Dynamics. An adept do-it-yourselfer, he is dedicated to bringing cutting-edge experimental physics within the grasp of fellow science buffs. In addition to being the lead author of Design and Development of Medical Electronic Instrumentation (Wiley), he has published over 30 scientific publications and holds over 70 patents.SHANNI R. PRUTCHI is a high-school junior at Jack M. Barrack Hebrew Academy in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. An avid science and engineering enthusiast, she conducts research with her father in the areas of radio astronomy and quantum physics.

“This unique book can also be highly recommended as supplementary reading, even in the absence of actual ‘hands-on’ participation in the many projects described.”  (Contemporary Physics, 6 December 2013

• Introduction xi Prologue xvImportant Disclaimer and Warnings xixAcknowledgments xxiiiAbout the Authors xxv1 LIGHT AS AWAVE 1Newton’s View: Light Consists of Particles 1Young’s Interference of Light 3Automatic Scanning of Interference Patterns 6The Final Nail in the Coffin for Newton’s Theory of Light 8Light as an Electromagnetic Wave 9Polarization 11Optics with 3-cm Wavelength “Light” 11Real-World Behaviors 16Double-Slit Interference with Microwaves 17The Doppler Effect 18Experiments and Questions 202 LIGHT AS PARTICLES 23The Seed of Quantum Physics: Planck’s Formula 27The Photoelectric Effect 28Can we Detect Individual Photons? 36Low-Cost PMT Power Supplies 38Listening to Individual Photons 41Where does this Leave Us? 45Experiments and Questions 453 ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY 49The Need for Vacuum 49The Mechanical Vacuum Pump 51The Vacuum Gauge 53A Very-High-Voltage Power Supply 56A Vacuum Tube Legow Set 56Phosphor Screens 59The Electron Gun 60The Discovery of the Electron 61Cathode-Ray Tubes 63Thomson’s First 1897 Experiment—Negative Charge and Rays are Joined Together 65Thomson’s Second Experiment—Electrostatic Deflection of Cathode Rays 67Thomson and the Modern CRT 69Thomson’s Third Experiment—Mass-to-Charge Ratio of the Electron 72Measuring e/m with our CRT 74A Magical Measurement of e/m 77Thomson’s “Plum Pudding” Model of the Atom 79Geiger–Mu¨ller Counter 80a, b, and g 89The Nature of Beta Radiation 92The Ionizing Power of Alpha 92What are Alpha Particles? 95Rutherford’s Alpha-Scattering Experiment 96Rutherford’s Planetary Model of the Atom 102Experiments and Questions 1034 THE PRINCIPLE OF QUANTUM PHYSICS 107Emission Spectroscopy 107Bohr’s Spark of Genius 113Orbitals and Not Orbits 115Quantization—The Core of Quantum Physics 117Experiments and Questions 1185 WAVE–PARTICLE DUALITY 121Gamma-Ray Spectrum Analysis 122What is the Nature of Light? 126Two-Slit Interference with Single Photons 128Imaging Single Photons 133The Answer: Complementarity 135Matter Waves 137Matter Waves and the Bohr Atom 137Experimental Confirmation of De Broglie’s Matter Waves 138Two-Slit Interference with Single Electrons 142A Simple TEM 144Blurring the Line Between Quantum and Classical 148Particle–Wave Duality in the Macroscopic World 148Experiments and Questions 1496 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 151Wavefunctions 151The Uncertainty Principle 153Experimental Demonstration of the Uncertainty Principle 155Time–Energy Uncertainty 159Fourier Analysis 159Bye, Bye Clockwork Universe 163Experiments and Questions 1657 SCHRO¨ DINGER (AND HIS ZOMBIE CAT) 167Real-World Particle in a Box 171Quantum Tunneling 174Quantum Tunneling Time 178Many-Worlds Interpretation 183Schro¨dinger’s Cat in the Lab 184Beam Splitters 186Who Rolls the Dice? 190The Mach–Zehnder Interferometer 192“Which-Way” Experiments 197The Quantum Eraser 199Experiments and Questions 2008 ENTANGLEMENT 203Bell’s Inequalities 205An Entangled-Photon Source 211Detecting Entangled Photons 214High-Purity Single-Photon Source 219Testing Bell’s Inequality 220Closing the Loopholes 225The Age of Quantum Information 226A Quantum Random-Number Generator 228Quantum Information 229Quantum Teleportation 230Faster-Than-Light Communication 236Quantum Cryptography 237Quantum Computing and Technologies for the Future 240Experiments and Questions 242REFERENCES 245SOURCES FOR MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 249ABBREVIATIONS 255INDEX 257