Oil and Gas Pipelines

R. Winston Revie retired from the CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory, Ottawa, Canada, in 2011, after 33 years as a scientist, project leader, and program manager for pipeline technology. He is a Past President of the Metallurgical Society of the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, a Past President of the NACE Foundation of Canada, and a Past Director of NACE International. He received the Distinguished Technical Achievement Award of NACE International in 2004 and has received Fellow honors from CIM (1999), NACE International (1999), ASM International (2003), and The Electrochemical Society (2012) among other awards for his work. He has authored or co-authored more than 100 reference papers and technical reports and was the editor of Uhlig's Corrosion Handbook, 2nd and 3rd editions (Wiley, 2000 and 2011), and he co-authored the 3rd and 4th editions of Corrosion and Corrosion Control (Wiley, 1985 and 2008).

• Preface xxxiContributors xxxiiiPart I Design 1 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS) 3 Ray Goodfellow and Katherine Jonsson1.1 Introduction 31.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity 41.3 What Is a PIMS? 41.4 Regulatory Requirements 51.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements 61.6 PIMS Function Map 81.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational 81.8 Do: Execute 91.9 Check: Assurance and Verification 101.10 Act: Management Review 101.11 Culture 111.12 Summary 11References 112 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 13Michael VanderZee, Doug Fisher, Gail Powley, and Rumi Mohammad2.1 Introduction 132.2 SCADA Computer Servers 142.3 SCADA Computer Workstations 14References 263 Material Selection for Fracture Control 27William Tyson3.1 Overview of Fracture Control 273.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation 28References 344 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines 37Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi4.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts 374.1.1 Overview of Strain-Based Design 374.5 Summary 46References 465 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines 49Mavis Sika Okyere5.1 Introduction 495.2 Design Pressure 495.13 Summary 64References 656 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications 67Ayman Eltaher6.1 Introduction 676.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility 686.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications 686.3.1 Design Challenges 686.3.2 Stress Analysis Challenges 686.3.3 Materials and Manufacturing Challenges 696.4 Typical Pipe Properties 706.5 Technology Qualification 706.6 Additional Resources 716.7 Summary 71References 717 Residual Stress in Pipelines 73Paul Prevéy and Douglas Hornbach7.1 Introduction 737.1.1 The Nature of Residual Stresses 737.1.2 Sources of Residual Stresses 747.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance 767.2.1 Fatigue 777.2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking 78References 968 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity 99Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes8.1 Introduction 998.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis 1018.2.1 Overview 1018.2.2 Pipeline Routing 102Acknowledgments 130References 1309 Human Factors 143Lorna Harron9.1 Introduction 1439.2 What Is “Human Factors”? 1439.3 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors 1439.9 Summary 154References 155Bibliography 155Part II Manufacture, Fabrication, and Construction 10 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels 159Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray10.1 Introduction 15910.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development 16010.5 Summary 182Acknowledgments 183References 18311 Pipe Manufacture—Introduction 187Gerhard Knauf and Axel Kulgemeyer11.1 Pipe Manufacturing Background 18711.2 Current Trends in Line Pipe Manufacturing 187References 18812 Pipe Manufacture—Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe 189Christoph Kalwa12.1 Introduction 18912.2 Manufacturing Process 18912.3 Quality Control Procedures 19112.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions 19212.5 Typical Fields of Application 19213 Pipe Manufacture—Spiral Pipe 195Franz Martin Knoop13.1 Manufacturing Process 19513.2 Quality Control Procedures 19813.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions 19813.4 Typical Fields of Applicability 200References 20114 Pipe Manufacture—ERW Pipe 203Holger Brauer and Hendrik Löbbe14.1 Introduction 20314.2 Manufacturing Process 20314.3 Quality Control Procedures 20414.3.1 Welding Line 20514.3.2 Finishing Line 20614.3.3 Destructive Material Testing 20814.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions 20814.5 Typical Fields of Applicability 208References 20915 Pipe Manufacture—Seamless Tube and Pipe 211Rolf Kümmerling and Klaus Kraemer15.1 The Rolling Process 21115.1.1 Introduction and History 21115.1.2 Cross Rolling Technology 21215.1.3 Pilger Rolling 21315.1.4 Plug Rolling 21515.1.5 Mandrel Rolling 21615.1.6 Forging 21815.1.7 Size Rolling and Stretch Reducing 21815.2 Further Processing 21915.2.1 Heat Treatment 21915.2.2 Quality and In-Process Checks 22115.2.3 Finishing Lines 221References 22216 Major Standards for Line Pipe Manufacturing and Testing 223Gerhard Knauf and Axel Kulgemeyer16.1 API SPEC 5L/ISO 3183 22316.2 CSA Z662-11: Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems 223References 22417 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines 225Nobuyuki Ishikawa17.1 Introduction 22517.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method 22517.2.1 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Full-Scale Test 22517.2.2 Standardized Laboratory Evaluation Method for HIC 22717.2.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking 22717.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel for Sour Service 22817.3.1 Effect of Nonmetallic Inclusions 22817.3.2 Effect of Center Segregation 22917.3.3 Effect of Plate Manufacturing Condition 229References 23018 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity 233David Dorling and James Gianetto18.1 Introduction 23318.2 Construction Welding Applications 23418.2.1 Double-Joint Welding 23418.2.2 Mainline Welding 23418.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding 23618.3 Nondestructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment 23718.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification 23918.4.1 Welding Codes and Standards 23918.4.2 Welding Procedures 23918.4.3 Welding Procedure Specification 23918.4.4 Procedure Qualification Record 24018.4.5 Qualification of Welders 24018.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking 24018.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design 24218.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines 24318.8 Pipeline Incidents Arising from Welding Defects and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action 245Appendix 18.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter 247Appendix 18.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards 247References 24819 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity 253Robert O’Grady19.1 Introduction 25319.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation 25319.2.1 Pipeline Installation Loading and Failure Modes 25319.2.2 S-Lay Method 25419.2.3 J-Lay Method 25619.2.4 Reel-Lay Method 25619.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation 25719.3.1 Vessel Restrictions 25719.3.2 Pipeline Integrity Criteria 25719.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies 25919.4.1 Global Installation Analysis 25919.4.2 Methodologies 25919.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore 26119.5.1 Monitoring Process and Remedial Action 26119.5.2 Monitoring Analysis Software 26119.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation 26119.6.1 Increased Tension and Potential for Local Buckling 26119.6.2 Plastic Strains 26219.6.3 Prolonged Fatigue Exposure 26219.6.4 Design Implications 262Reference 262Bibliography 262Part III Threats to Integrity and Safety 20 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil 267Homero Castaneda and Omar Rosas20.1 Introduction 26720.2 Background 267References 27321 Telluric Influence on Pipelines 275David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko21.1 Introduction 27521.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference 27521.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity 27621.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity 27821.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields 27821.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment 27921.6.1 Geomagnetic Activity 27921.6.2 Earth Conductivity Structure 28021.6.3 Pipeline Response 28021.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects 28121.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions 28321.9 Summary 283Acknowledgments 285References 28522 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation 289Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy22.1 Introduction 28922.2 Current Status of In-Line Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization 290References 32223 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines 327Robert E. Melchers23.1 Introduction 32723.2 Asset Management and Prediction 32823.3 Pitting 328Acknowledgments 339References 33924 Sulfide Stress Cracking 343Russell D. Kane24.1 Introduction 34324.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking? 343References 35125 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service 353Russell D. Kane25.1 Introduction 35325.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC 353References 360Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers 36126 AC Corrosion 363Lars Vendelbo Nielsen26.1 Introduction 36326.2 Basic Understanding 36326.2.1 The Spread Resistance 36526.2.2 The Effect of AC on DC Polarization 36826.2.3 The Vicious Circle of AC Corrosion—Mechanistic Approach 37026.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management 37326.3.1 Criteria 37326.3.2 Current Criteria 37326.3.3 Mitigation Measures 37426.3.4 Monitoring and Management 379References 382Bibliography 38227 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 387Brenda J. Little and Jason S. Lee27.1 Introduction 38727.2 Requirements for Microbial Growth 38827.6 Conclusions 395Acknowledgments 395References 39528 Erosion–Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines 399Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley, Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon, Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan28.1 Introduction 39928.2 Solid Particle Erosion 40128.7 Summary and Conclusions 419Acknowledgments 419References 41929 Black Powder in Gas Transmission Pipelines 423Abdelmounam M. Sherik29.1 Introduction 42329.2 Internal Corrosion of Gas Transmission Pipelines 42529.9 Summary 434Acknowledgments 435References 435Part IV Protection 30 External Coatings 439Doug Waslen30.1 Introduction and Background 43930.2 Coating Performance 439Reference 44631 Thermoplastic Liners for Oilfield Pipelines 447Jim Mason31.1 Introduction 44731.2 Codes and Standards 447References 45432 Cathodic Protection 457Sarah Leeds and John Leeds32.1 Introduction 45732.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection 457References 482Part V Inspection and Monitoring 33 Direct Assessment 487John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski33.1 Introduction 48733.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA) 488References 49334 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes 495Daniel E. Powell34.1 Introduction—Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes 49534.1.1 Corrosion—A Definition 496References 51335 In-Line Inspection (ILI) (“Intelligent Pigging”) 515Neb I. Uzelac35.1 Introduction 51535.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management 515References 535Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content 53536 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection 537Konrad Reber36.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing 53736.1.1 Introduction 53736.1.2 How Eddy Current Testing (ECT) Works 537References 54237 Unpiggable Pipelines 545Tom Steinvoorte37.1 Introduction 54537.1.1 What Is an Unpiggable Pipeline? 545References 554Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information 55538 In-the-Ditch Pipeline Inspection 557Greg Zinter38.1 Overview 55738.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines 55738.12 Summary 568Acknowledgments 568Reference 569Bibliography 56939 Ultrasonic Monitoring of Pipeline Wall Thickness with Autonomous, Wireless Sensor Networks 571Frederic Cegla and Jon Allin39.1 Introduction 57139.2 The Physics of Ultrasonic Thickness Gauging 57139.6 Summary 576Acknowledgments 577References 57740 Flaw Assessment 579Ted L. Anderson40.1 Overview 57940.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental? 579References 58641 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities 587Keith G. Leewis41.1 Overview 58741.2 Outline 58841.3 Scoping a Facilities Integrity Plan 588Part VI Maintenance, Repair, Replacement, And Abandonment 42 Pipeline Cleaning 601Randy L. Roberts42.1 Introduction 60142.2 Contaminates 60142.3 Progressive Pigging 60242.10 Summary 607References 60743 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure 609Brian N. Leis43.1 Introduction 60943.2 Background 609Acknowledgments 633References 63344 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves 635William A. Bruce and John Kiefner44.1 Introduction 63544.2 Background 63544.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves 63644.6 Summary and Conclusions 654References 65445 Pipeline Repair 657Robert Smyth and Buddy Powers45.1 Introduction 65745.2 Background 65745.3 Safety 657References 66446 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup 665Merv Fingas46.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview 66546.1.1 How Often Do Spills Occur? 66546.1.2 Pipelines 666References 68747 Pipeline Abandonment 689Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes47.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment? 68947.2 Abandonment Planning 689References 696Part VII Risk Management 48 Risk Management of Pipelines 699Lynne C. Kaley and Kathleen O. Powers48.1 Overview 69948.1.1 Risk-Based Inspection for Pipelines 69948.1.2 Scope 70048.1.3 Risk Analysis 70048.1.4 The RBI Approach 70248.1.5 Risk Reduction and Inspection Planning 70348.5.1 Summary 72448.5.2 Ten Criteria for Selecting the Most Appropriate Level of RBI 72448.5.3 Justifying Costs 725References 72649 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management 727Binder Singh and Ben Poblete49.1 Introduction 72749.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions 72849.3 Life Cycle 73349.7 Summary: Recommendations and Future Strategies 755Acknowledgments 755References 755Bibliography 756Part VIII Case Histories  50 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study— Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions 761Arnold L. Lewis ii50.1 Introduction 76150.1.1 Statement of the Buckle/Collapse Problem 76250.1.2 Observations 76250.3 Summary 767Acknowledgment 767References 76751 In-Line Inspection on an Unprecedented Scale 769Stephan Brockhaus, Hubert Lindner, Tom Steinvoorte, Holger Hennerkes, and Ljiljana Djapic-Oosterkamp51.1 Introduction 76951.2 Challenging Design and Operating Conditions 76951.3 Combined Technologies for Reliable Inspection Results 76951.7 Summary 775References 77552 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multidiameter Pipelines—A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project 777Hubert Lindner52.1 Introduction 77752.2 Project Requirements 77752.7 Summary 783References 783GlossaryPart 1: Abbreviations 785Part 2: Selected Terms 791Index 793