Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook, Volume 1

Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K. and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K. and a Teacher's Certificate in Education at the University of London, U.K. He has directed and conducted short courses extensively throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of five books in chemical engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol 61. He was named as one of the International Biographical Centre's Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who's Who of ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who's Who in the U.S.

• Preface xixAcknowledgments xxiAbout the Author xxiii1 Introduction 1References 62 Composition of Crude Oils and Petroleum Products 7 2.1 Hydrocarbons 82.1.1 Alkynes Series 122.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 142.3 Heteroatomic Organic Compounds 152.3.1 Non-Hydrocarbons 152.3.2 Sulfur Compounds 182.4 Thiols 182.5 Oxygen Compounds 202.6 Nitrogen Compounds 222.7 Resins and Asphaltenes 232.8 Salts 242.9 Carbon Dioxide 242.10 Metallic Compounds 242.11 Products Composition 252.11.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) (C3 and C4) 262.11.2 Gasoline (C5 to C11) 262.11.3 Condensate (C4, C5 and C6 >) 272.11.4 Gas Fuel Oils (C12 to C19) 272.11.5 Kerosene 272.11.6 Diesel Fuel 282.11.7 Fuel Oils # 4, 5, and 6 282.11.8 Residual Fuel Oil 282.11.9 Natural Gas 29References 303 Characterization of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions 313.1 Introduction 313.2 Crude Oil Assay Data 373.3 Crude Cutting Analysis 373.4 Crude Oil Blending 373.5 Laboratory Testing of Crude Oils 463.6 Octanes 583.7 Cetanes 583.7.1 Cetane Index 593.8 Diesel Index 593.9 Determination of the Lower Heating Value of Petroleum Fractions 593.10 Aniline Point Blending 603.11 Correlation Index (CI) 603.12 Chromatographically Simulated Distillations 61References 62 4 Thermodynamic Properties of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions 634.1 K-Factor Hydrocarbon Equilibrium Charts 644.2 Non-Ideal Systems 724.3 Vapor Pressure 744.4 Viscosity 804.5 Refractive Index 874.6 Liquid Density 894.7 Molecular Weight 904.8 Molecular Type Composition 904.9 Critical Temperature, Tc 964.10 Critical Pressure, Pc 974.11 Pseudo-Critical Constants and Acentric Factors 984.12 Enthalpy of Petroleum Fractions 994.13 Compressibility Z Factor of Natural Gases 1004.14 Simulation Thermodynamic Software Programs 105References 1105 Process Descriptions of Refinery Processes 1115.1 Introduction 1115.2 Refinery and Distillation Processes 1155.3 Process Description of the Crude Distillation Unit 1205.4 Process Variables in the Design of Crude Distillation Column 1325.5 Process Simulation 1345.6 Process Description of Light Arabian Crude Using UniSim® Simulation Software [12] 1385.7 Troubleshooting Actual Columns 1445.8 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 145References 1486 Thermal Cracking Processes 1496.1 Process Description 1526.2 Steam Jet Ejector 1526.3 Pressure Survey in a Vacuum Column 1546.4 Simulation of Vacuum Distillation Unit 1566.5 Coking 1576.6 Fluid Coking 1646.7 Fractionator Overhead System 1706.8 Coke Drum Operations 1726.9 Hydraulic Jet Decoking 1736.10 Uses of Petroleum Coke 1746.11 Use of Gasification 1746.12 Sponge Coke 1756.13 Safety and Environmental Considerations 1756.14 Simulation/Calculations 1766.15 Visbreaking 1776.16 Process Simulation 1846.17 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 185References 186 7 Hydroprocessing 1877.1 Catalytic Conversion Processes 1877.2 Feed Specifications 1947.3 Feed Boiling Range 1967.4 Catalyst 1967.5 Poor Gas Distribution 2007.6 Poor Mixing of Reactants 2007.7 The Mechanism of Hydrocracking 2007.8 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Hydrocracking 2017.9 Process Design, Rating and Performance 2047.10 Increased ΔP 2107.11 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate 2147.12 Measurement of Performance 2157.13 Catalyst-Bed Temperature Profiles 2167.14 Factors Affecting Hydrocracking Process Operation 2177.15 Hydrocracking Correlations 2177.16 Hydrocracker Fractionating Unit 2287.17 Operating Variables 2317.18 Hydrotreating Process 2347.19 Thermodynamics of Hydrotreating 2407.20 Reaction Kinetics 2437.21 Naphtha Hydrotreating 2457.22 Atmospheric Residue Desulfurization 2507.23 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 258References 2588 Catalytic Cracking 259 8.1 Introduction 2598.2 Fluidized Bed Catalytic Cracking 2628.2.1 Process Description 2628.3 Modes of Fluidization 2698.4 Cracking Reactions 2708.5 Thermodynamics of FCC 2738.6 Process Design Variables 2788.7 Material and Energy Balances 2818.8 Heat Recovery 2838.9 FCC Yield Correlations 2848.10 Estimating Potential Yields of FCC Feed 2868.11 Pollution Control 2908.12 New Technology 2928.13 Refining/Petrochemical Integration 2968.14 Metallurgy 2968.15 Troubleshooting for Fluidized Catalyst Cracking Units 2978.16 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 2988.17 Licensors’ Correlations 2998.18 Simulation and Modeling Strategy 300References 3049 Catalytic Reforming and Isomerization 3059.1 Introduction 3059.2 Catalytic Reforming 3069.3 Feed Characterization 3069.4 Catalytic Reforming Processes 3089.5 Operations of the Reformer Process 3129.6 Catalytic Reformer Reactors 3169.7 Material Balance in Reforming 3179.8 Reactions 3209.9 Hydrocracking Reactions 3229.10 Reforming Catalyst 3229.11 Coke Deposition 3249.12 Thermodynamics 3269.13 Kinetic Models 3269.14 The Reactor Model 3269.15 Modeling of Naphtha Catalytic Reforming Process 3299.16 Isomerization 3299.17 Sulfolane Extraction Process 3319.18 Aromatic Complex 3339.19 Hydrodealkylation Process 336References 337 10 Alkylation and Polymerization Processes 339 10.1 Introduction 33910.2 Chemistry of Alkylation 34010.3 Catalysts 34210.4 Process Variables 34310.5 Alkylation Feedstocks 34510.6 Alkylation Products 34610.7 Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Process 34610.8 HF Alkylation 34710.9 Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Alkylation 35110.10 Polymerization 35410.11 HF and H2SO4 Mitigating Releases 35410.12 Corrosion Problems 35610.13 A New Technology of Alkylation Process Using Ionic Liquid 35610.14 Chevron – Honeywell UOP Ionic liquid Alkylation 35710.15 Chemical Release and Flash Fire: A Case Study of the Alkylation Unit at the Delaware City Refining Company (DCRC) Involving Equipment Maintenance Incident 358References 36211 Hydrogen Production and Purification 365 11.1 Hydrogen Requirements in a Refinery 36511.2 Process Chemistry 36611.3 High-Temperature Shift Conversion 36811.4 Low-Temperature Shift Conversion 36811.5 Gas Purification 36811.6 Purification of Hydrogen Product 36911.7 Hydrogen Distribution System 37011.8 Off-Gas Hydrogen Recovery 37111.9 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Unit 37111.10 Refinery Hydrogen Management 37511.11 Hydrogen Pinch Studies 377References 37912 Gas Processing and Acid Gas Removal 381 12.1 Introduction 38112.2 Diesel Hydrodesulfurization (DHDS) 38312.3 Hydrotreating Reactions 38312.4 Gas Processing 38812.5 Sulfur Management 39112.6 Physical Solvent Gas Processes 40112.7 Carbonate Process 40212.8 Solution Batch Process 40312.9 Process Description of Gas Processing using UniSim® Simulation 40512.10 Gas Dryer (Dehydration) Design 41012.11 Kremser-Brown-Sherwood Method-No Heat of Absorption 41512.12 Absorption: Edmister Method 42112.13 Gas Treating Troubleshooting 43212.14 Cause – Loss of Glycol Out of Still Column 43412.15 The ADIP Process 43512.16 Sour Water Stripping Process 435References 438Glossary of Petroleum and Technical Terminology 441Appendix A Equilibrium K values 533Appendix B Analytical Techniques 547Appendix C Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Major Hydrocarbons 557Appendix D A List of Engineering Process Flow Diagrams and Process Data Sheets 573Index 623