ASHOK RAO, PhD, is a well-acknowledged national and international leader in the field of energy conversion and has made wide-ranging contributions in these fields over the past 40 years in industry as well as at the University of California’s Advanced Power and Energy Program where he is currently its Chief Scientist for Power Systems. While working at Fluor as a Director in Process Engineering, he was honoured by being made a Senior Fellow. In 2011, he was invited to be the Associate Editor for the ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power and a keynote speaker at the 2011 International Conference on Applied Energy, Perugia, Italy. He also has a number of patents to his credit in the field of energy conversion as well as numerous high-quality publications.

• Preface xiAbout the Book xivAbout the Author xv1 Introduction to Energy Systems 11.1 Energy Sources and Distribution of Resources 21.1.1 Fossil Fuels 21.1.2 Nuclear 161.1.3 Renewables 171.2 Energy and the Environment 211.2.1 Criteria and Other Air Pollutants 221.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions, Capture, and Storage 261.2.3 Water Usage 281.3 Holistic Approach 291.3.1 Supply Chain and Life Cycle Assessment 291.4 Conclusions 31References 312 Thermodynamics 332.1 First Law 342.1.1 Application to a Combustor 362.1.2 Efficiency Based on First Law 452.2 Second Law 462.2.1 Quality Destruction and Entropy Generation 512.2.2 Second Law Analysis 532.2.3 First and Second Law Efficiencies 572.3 Combustion and Gibbs Free Energy Minimization 582.4 Nonideal Behavior 602.4.1 Gas Phase 602.4.2 Vapor–Liquid Phases 62References 643 Fluid Flow Equipment 663.1 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 663.1.1 Flow Regimes 673.1.2 Extended Bernoulli Equation 683.2 Single-Phase Incompressible Flow 693.2.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes 693.2.2 Pressure Drop in Fittings 703.3 Single-Phase Compressible Flow 713.3.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 723.3.2 Choked Flow 723.4 Two-Phase Fluid Flow 723.4.1 Gas–Liquid Flow Regimes 733.4.2 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 743.4.3 Droplet Separation 743.5 Solid Fluid Systems 773.5.1 Flow Regimes 773.5.2 Pressure Drop 783.5.3 Pneumatic Conveying 803.6 Fluid Velocity in Pipes 803.7 Turbomachinery 813.7.1 Pumps 813.7.2 Compressors 903.7.3 Fans and Blowers 973.7.4 Expansion Turbines 98References 994 Heat Transfer Equipment 1014.1 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer 1014.1.1 Conduction 1024.1.2 Convection 1034.1.3 Radiation 1124.2 Heat Exchange Equipment 1174.2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 1184.2.2 Plate Heat Exchangers 1244.2.3 Air-Cooled Exchangers 1274.2.4 Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) 1284.2.5 Boilers and Fired Heaters 129References 1305 Mass Transfer and Chemical Reaction Equipment 1315.1 Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 1315.1.1 Molecular Diffusion 1325.1.2 Convective Transport 1335.1.3 Adsorption 1345.2 Gas–Liquid Systems 1355.2.1 Types of Mass Transfer Operations 1355.2.2 Types of Columns 1445.2.3 Column Sizing 1465.2.4 Column Diameter and Pressure Drop 1575.3 Fluid–Solid Systems 1595.3.1 Adsorbers 1595.3.2 Catalytic Reactors 162References 1676 Prime Movers 1696.1 Gas Turbines 1706.1.1 Principles of Operation 1716.1.2 Combustor and Air Emissions 1766.1.3 Start-Up and Load Control 1776.1.4 Performance Characteristics 1776.1.5 Fuel Types 1796.1.6 Technology Developments 1826.2 Steam Turbines 1856.2.1 Principles of Operation 1856.2.2 Load Control 1866.2.3 Performance Characteristics 1876.2.4 Technology Developments 1896.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines 1906.3.1 Principles of Operation 1906.3.2 Air Emissions 1936.3.3 Start-up 1936.3.4 Performance Characteristics 1946.3.5 Fuel Types 1946.4 Hydraulic Turbines 1956.4.1 Process Industry Applications 1956.4.2 Hydroelectric Power Plant Applications 196References 1967 Systems Analysis 1987.1 Design Basis 1987.1.1 Fuel or Feedstock Specifications 2007.1.2 Mode of Heat Rejection 2007.1.3 Ambient Conditions 2007.1.4 Other Site-Specific Considerations 2017.1.5 Environmental Emissions Criteria 2027.1.6 Capacity Factor 2037.1.7 Off-Design Requirements 2047.2 System Configuration 2057.3 Exergy and Pinch Analyses 2077.3.1 Exergy Analysis 2077.3.2 Pinch Analysis 2087.4 Process Flow Diagrams 2127.5 Dynamic Simulation and Process Control 2157.5.1 Dynamic Simulation 2157.5.2 Automatic Process Control 2197.6 Cost Estimation and Economics 2207.6.1 Total Plant Cost 2207.6.2 Economic Analysis 2257.7 Life Cycle Assessment 227References 2288 Rankine Cycle Systems 2308.1 Basic Rankine Cycle 2318.2 Addition of Superheating 2338.3 Addition of Reheat 2368.4 Addition of Economizer and Regenerative Feedwater Heating 2388.5 Supercritical Rankine Cycle 2418.6 The Steam Cycle 2418.7 Coal-Fired Power Generation 2448.7.1 Coal-Fired Boilers 2448.7.2 Emissions and Control 2458.7.3 Description of a Large Supercritical Steam Rankine Cycle 2518.8 Plant-Derived Biomass-Fired Power Generation 2558.8.1 Feedstock Characteristics 2558.8.2 Biomass-Fired Boilers 2568.8.3 Cofiring Biomass in Coal-Fired Boilers 2568.8.4 Emissions 2578.9 Municipal Solid Waste Fired Power Generation 2588.9.1 MSW-Fired Boilers 2588.9.2 Emissions Control 2598.10 Low-Temperature Cycles 2608.10.1 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) 260References 2629 Brayton–Rankine Combined Cycle Systems 2649.1 Combined Cycle 2649.1.1 Gas Turbine Cycles for Combined Cycles 2659.1.2 Steam Cycles for Combined Cycles 2669.2 Natural Gas-Fueled Plants 2679.2.1 Description of a Large Combined Cycle 2679.2.2 No X Control 2729.2.3 CO and Volatile Organic Compounds Control 2729.2.4 CO 2 Emissions Control 2739.2.5 Characteristics of Combined Cycles 2769.3 Coal and Biomass Fueled Plants 2799.3.1 Gasification 2809.3.2 Gasifier Feedstocks 2829.3.3 Key Technologies in IGCC Systems 2839.3.4 Description of an IGCC 2879.3.5 Advantages of an IGCC 2919.3.6 Economies of Scale and Biomass Gasification 2919.4 Indirectly Fired Cycle 291References 29410 Coproduction and Cogeneration 29610.1 Types of Coproducts and Synergy in Coproduction 29710.2 Syngas Generation for Coproduction 29810.2.1 Gasifiers 29810.2.2 Reformers 29910.2.3 Shift Reactors 30010.3 Syngas Conversion to Some Key Coproducts 30210.3.1 Methanol 30210.3.2 Urea 30510.3.3 Fischer–Tropsch Liquids 30910.4 Hydrogen Coproduction from Coal and Biomass 31510.4.1 Current Technology Plant 31510.4.2 Advanced Technology Plant 31810.5 Combined Heat and Power 32210.5.1 LiBr Absorption Refrigeration 325References 32811 Advanced Systems 33011.1 High Temperature Membrane Separators 33011.1.1 Ceramic Membranes 33111.1.2 Application of Membranes to Air Separation 33311.1.3 Application of Membranes to H 2 Separation 33411.2 Fuel Cells 33411.2.1 Basic Electrochemistry and Transport Phenomena 33711.2.2 Real Fuel Cell Behavior 33911.2.3 Overall Cell Performance 34211.2.4 A Fuel Cell Power Generation System 34511.2.5 Major Fuel Cell Type Characteristics 34711.2.6 Hybrid Cycles 35111.2.7 A Coal-Fueled Hybrid System 35411.3 Chemical Looping 35411.4 Magnetohydrodynamics 356References 35712 Renewables and Nuclear 35912.1 Wind 36012.1.1 Wind Resources and Plant Siting 36112.1.2 Key Equipment 36312.1.3 Economics 36412.1.4 Environmental Issues 36512.2 Solar 36512.2.1 Solar Resources and Plant Siting 36612.2.2 Key Equipment 36612.2.3 Economics 36812.2.4 Environmental Issues 36912.3 Geothermal 37112.3.1 Geothermal Resources and Plant Siting 37112.3.2 Key Equipment 37212.3.3 Economics 37612.3.4 Environmental Issues 37712.4 Nuclear 37812.4.1 Nuclear Fuel Resources and Plant Siting 37912.4.2 Key Equipment 38012.4.3 Economics 38112.4.4 Environmental Issues 38212.5 Electric Grid Stability and Dependence on Fossil Fuels 38312.5.1 Super and Micro Grids 385References 385Appendix: Acronyms and Abbreviations, Symbols and Units 387Index 396

ASHOK RAO, PhD, is a well-acknowledged national and international leader in the field of energy conversion and has made wide-ranging contributions in these fields over the past 40 years in industry as well as at the University of California’s Advanced Power and Energy Program where he is currently its Chief Scientist for Power Systems. While working at Fluor as a Director in Process Engineering, he was honoured by being made a Senior Fellow. In 2011, he was invited to be the Associate Editor for the ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power and a keynote speaker at the 2011 International Conference on Applied Energy, Perugia, Italy. He also has a number of patents to his credit in the field of energy conversion as well as numerous high-quality publications.

• Preface xiAbout the Book xivAbout the Author xv1 Introduction to Energy Systems 11.1 Energy Sources and Distribution of Resources 21.1.1 Fossil Fuels 21.1.2 Nuclear 161.1.3 Renewables 171.2 Energy and the Environment 211.2.1 Criteria and Other Air Pollutants 221.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions, Capture, and Storage 261.2.3 Water Usage 281.3 Holistic Approach 291.3.1 Supply Chain and Life Cycle Assessment 291.4 Conclusions 31References 312 Thermodynamics 332.1 First Law 342.1.1 Application to a Combustor 362.1.2 Efficiency Based on First Law 452.2 Second Law 462.2.1 Quality Destruction and Entropy Generation 512.2.2 Second Law Analysis 532.2.3 First and Second Law Efficiencies 572.3 Combustion and Gibbs Free Energy Minimization 582.4 Nonideal Behavior 602.4.1 Gas Phase 602.4.2 Vapor–Liquid Phases 62References 643 Fluid Flow Equipment 663.1 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 663.1.1 Flow Regimes 673.1.2 Extended Bernoulli Equation 683.2 Single-Phase Incompressible Flow 693.2.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes 693.2.2 Pressure Drop in Fittings 703.3 Single-Phase Compressible Flow 713.3.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 723.3.2 Choked Flow 723.4 Two-Phase Fluid Flow 723.4.1 Gas–Liquid Flow Regimes 733.4.2 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 743.4.3 Droplet Separation 743.5 Solid Fluid Systems 773.5.1 Flow Regimes 773.5.2 Pressure Drop 783.5.3 Pneumatic Conveying 803.6 Fluid Velocity in Pipes 803.7 Turbomachinery 813.7.1 Pumps 813.7.2 Compressors 903.7.3 Fans and Blowers 973.7.4 Expansion Turbines 98References 994 Heat Transfer Equipment 1014.1 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer 1014.1.1 Conduction 1024.1.2 Convection 1034.1.3 Radiation 1124.2 Heat Exchange Equipment 1174.2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 1184.2.2 Plate Heat Exchangers 1244.2.3 Air-Cooled Exchangers 1274.2.4 Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) 1284.2.5 Boilers and Fired Heaters 129References 1305 Mass Transfer and Chemical Reaction Equipment 1315.1 Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 1315.1.1 Molecular Diffusion 1325.1.2 Convective Transport 1335.1.3 Adsorption 1345.2 Gas–Liquid Systems 1355.2.1 Types of Mass Transfer Operations 1355.2.2 Types of Columns 1445.2.3 Column Sizing 1465.2.4 Column Diameter and Pressure Drop 1575.3 Fluid–Solid Systems 1595.3.1 Adsorbers 1595.3.2 Catalytic Reactors 162References 1676 Prime Movers 1696.1 Gas Turbines 1706.1.1 Principles of Operation 1716.1.2 Combustor and Air Emissions 1766.1.3 Start-Up and Load Control 1776.1.4 Performance Characteristics 1776.1.5 Fuel Types 1796.1.6 Technology Developments 1826.2 Steam Turbines 1856.2.1 Principles of Operation 1856.2.2 Load Control 1866.2.3 Performance Characteristics 1876.2.4 Technology Developments 1896.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines 1906.3.1 Principles of Operation 1906.3.2 Air Emissions 1936.3.3 Start-up 1936.3.4 Performance Characteristics 1946.3.5 Fuel Types 1946.4 Hydraulic Turbines 1956.4.1 Process Industry Applications 1956.4.2 Hydroelectric Power Plant Applications 196References 1967 Systems Analysis 1987.1 Design Basis 1987.1.1 Fuel or Feedstock Specifications 2007.1.2 Mode of Heat Rejection 2007.1.3 Ambient Conditions 2007.1.4 Other Site-Specific Considerations 2017.1.5 Environmental Emissions Criteria 2027.1.6 Capacity Factor 2037.1.7 Off-Design Requirements 2047.2 System Configuration 2057.3 Exergy and Pinch Analyses 2077.3.1 Exergy Analysis 2077.3.2 Pinch Analysis 2087.4 Process Flow Diagrams 2127.5 Dynamic Simulation and Process Control 2157.5.1 Dynamic Simulation 2157.5.2 Automatic Process Control 2197.6 Cost Estimation and Economics 2207.6.1 Total Plant Cost 2207.6.2 Economic Analysis 2257.7 Life Cycle Assessment 227References 2288 Rankine Cycle Systems 2308.1 Basic Rankine Cycle 2318.2 Addition of Superheating 2338.3 Addition of Reheat 2368.4 Addition of Economizer and Regenerative Feedwater Heating 2388.5 Supercritical Rankine Cycle 2418.6 The Steam Cycle 2418.7 Coal-Fired Power Generation 2448.7.1 Coal-Fired Boilers 2448.7.2 Emissions and Control 2458.7.3 Description of a Large Supercritical Steam Rankine Cycle 2518.8 Plant-Derived Biomass-Fired Power Generation 2558.8.1 Feedstock Characteristics 2558.8.2 Biomass-Fired Boilers 2568.8.3 Cofiring Biomass in Coal-Fired Boilers 2568.8.4 Emissions 2578.9 Municipal Solid Waste Fired Power Generation 2588.9.1 MSW-Fired Boilers 2588.9.2 Emissions Control 2598.10 Low-Temperature Cycles 2608.10.1 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) 260References 2629 Brayton–Rankine Combined Cycle Systems 2649.1 Combined Cycle 2649.1.1 Gas Turbine Cycles for Combined Cycles 2659.1.2 Steam Cycles for Combined Cycles 2669.2 Natural Gas-Fueled Plants 2679.2.1 Description of a Large Combined Cycle 2679.2.2 No X Control 2729.2.3 CO and Volatile Organic Compounds Control 2729.2.4 CO 2 Emissions Control 2739.2.5 Characteristics of Combined Cycles 2769.3 Coal and Biomass Fueled Plants 2799.3.1 Gasification 2809.3.2 Gasifier Feedstocks 2829.3.3 Key Technologies in IGCC Systems 2839.3.4 Description of an IGCC 2879.3.5 Advantages of an IGCC 2919.3.6 Economies of Scale and Biomass Gasification 2919.4 Indirectly Fired Cycle 291References 29410 Coproduction and Cogeneration 29610.1 Types of Coproducts and Synergy in Coproduction 29710.2 Syngas Generation for Coproduction 29810.2.1 Gasifiers 29810.2.2 Reformers 29910.2.3 Shift Reactors 30010.3 Syngas Conversion to Some Key Coproducts 30210.3.1 Methanol 30210.3.2 Urea 30510.3.3 Fischer–Tropsch Liquids 30910.4 Hydrogen Coproduction from Coal and Biomass 31510.4.1 Current Technology Plant 31510.4.2 Advanced Technology Plant 31810.5 Combined Heat and Power 32210.5.1 LiBr Absorption Refrigeration 325References 32811 Advanced Systems 33011.1 High Temperature Membrane Separators 33011.1.1 Ceramic Membranes 33111.1.2 Application of Membranes to Air Separation 33311.1.3 Application of Membranes to H 2 Separation 33411.2 Fuel Cells 33411.2.1 Basic Electrochemistry and Transport Phenomena 33711.2.2 Real Fuel Cell Behavior 33911.2.3 Overall Cell Performance 34211.2.4 A Fuel Cell Power Generation System 34511.2.5 Major Fuel Cell Type Characteristics 34711.2.6 Hybrid Cycles 35111.2.7 A Coal-Fueled Hybrid System 35411.3 Chemical Looping 35411.4 Magnetohydrodynamics 356References 35712 Renewables and Nuclear 35912.1 Wind 36012.1.1 Wind Resources and Plant Siting 36112.1.2 Key Equipment 36312.1.3 Economics 36412.1.4 Environmental Issues 36512.2 Solar 36512.2.1 Solar Resources and Plant Siting 36612.2.2 Key Equipment 36612.2.3 Economics 36812.2.4 Environmental Issues 36912.3 Geothermal 37112.3.1 Geothermal Resources and Plant Siting 37112.3.2 Key Equipment 37212.3.3 Economics 37612.3.4 Environmental Issues 37712.4 Nuclear 37812.4.1 Nuclear Fuel Resources and Plant Siting 37912.4.2 Key Equipment 38012.4.3 Economics 38112.4.4 Environmental Issues 38212.5 Electric Grid Stability and Dependence on Fossil Fuels 38312.5.1 Super and Micro Grids 385References 385Appendix: Acronyms and Abbreviations, Symbols and Units 387Index 396

ASHOK RAO, PhD, is a well-acknowledged national and international leader in the field of energy conversion and has made wide-ranging contributions in these fields over the past 40 years in industry as well as at the University of California’s Advanced Power and Energy Program where he is currently its Chief Scientist for Power Systems. While working at Fluor as a Director in Process Engineering, he was honoured by being made a Senior Fellow. In 2011, he was invited to be the Associate Editor for the ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power and a keynote speaker at the 2011 International Conference on Applied Energy, Perugia, Italy. He also has a number of patents to his credit in the field of energy conversion as well as numerous high-quality publications.

• Preface xiAbout the Book xivAbout the Author xv1 Introduction to Energy Systems 11.1 Energy Sources and Distribution of Resources 21.1.1 Fossil Fuels 21.1.2 Nuclear 161.1.3 Renewables 171.2 Energy and the Environment 211.2.1 Criteria and Other Air Pollutants 221.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions, Capture, and Storage 261.2.3 Water Usage 281.3 Holistic Approach 291.3.1 Supply Chain and Life Cycle Assessment 291.4 Conclusions 31References 312 Thermodynamics 332.1 First Law 342.1.1 Application to a Combustor 362.1.2 Efficiency Based on First Law 452.2 Second Law 462.2.1 Quality Destruction and Entropy Generation 512.2.2 Second Law Analysis 532.2.3 First and Second Law Efficiencies 572.3 Combustion and Gibbs Free Energy Minimization 582.4 Nonideal Behavior 602.4.1 Gas Phase 602.4.2 Vapor–Liquid Phases 62References 643 Fluid Flow Equipment 663.1 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 663.1.1 Flow Regimes 673.1.2 Extended Bernoulli Equation 683.2 Single-Phase Incompressible Flow 693.2.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes 693.2.2 Pressure Drop in Fittings 703.3 Single-Phase Compressible Flow 713.3.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 723.3.2 Choked Flow 723.4 Two-Phase Fluid Flow 723.4.1 Gas–Liquid Flow Regimes 733.4.2 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 743.4.3 Droplet Separation 743.5 Solid Fluid Systems 773.5.1 Flow Regimes 773.5.2 Pressure Drop 783.5.3 Pneumatic Conveying 803.6 Fluid Velocity in Pipes 803.7 Turbomachinery 813.7.1 Pumps 813.7.2 Compressors 903.7.3 Fans and Blowers 973.7.4 Expansion Turbines 98References 994 Heat Transfer Equipment 1014.1 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer 1014.1.1 Conduction 1024.1.2 Convection 1034.1.3 Radiation 1124.2 Heat Exchange Equipment 1174.2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 1184.2.2 Plate Heat Exchangers 1244.2.3 Air-Cooled Exchangers 1274.2.4 Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) 1284.2.5 Boilers and Fired Heaters 129References 1305 Mass Transfer and Chemical Reaction Equipment 1315.1 Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 1315.1.1 Molecular Diffusion 1325.1.2 Convective Transport 1335.1.3 Adsorption 1345.2 Gas–Liquid Systems 1355.2.1 Types of Mass Transfer Operations 1355.2.2 Types of Columns 1445.2.3 Column Sizing 1465.2.4 Column Diameter and Pressure Drop 1575.3 Fluid–Solid Systems 1595.3.1 Adsorbers 1595.3.2 Catalytic Reactors 162References 1676 Prime Movers 1696.1 Gas Turbines 1706.1.1 Principles of Operation 1716.1.2 Combustor and Air Emissions 1766.1.3 Start-Up and Load Control 1776.1.4 Performance Characteristics 1776.1.5 Fuel Types 1796.1.6 Technology Developments 1826.2 Steam Turbines 1856.2.1 Principles of Operation 1856.2.2 Load Control 1866.2.3 Performance Characteristics 1876.2.4 Technology Developments 1896.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines 1906.3.1 Principles of Operation 1906.3.2 Air Emissions 1936.3.3 Start-up 1936.3.4 Performance Characteristics 1946.3.5 Fuel Types 1946.4 Hydraulic Turbines 1956.4.1 Process Industry Applications 1956.4.2 Hydroelectric Power Plant Applications 196References 1967 Systems Analysis 1987.1 Design Basis 1987.1.1 Fuel or Feedstock Specifications 2007.1.2 Mode of Heat Rejection 2007.1.3 Ambient Conditions 2007.1.4 Other Site-Specific Considerations 2017.1.5 Environmental Emissions Criteria 2027.1.6 Capacity Factor 2037.1.7 Off-Design Requirements 2047.2 System Configuration 2057.3 Exergy and Pinch Analyses 2077.3.1 Exergy Analysis 2077.3.2 Pinch Analysis 2087.4 Process Flow Diagrams 2127.5 Dynamic Simulation and Process Control 2157.5.1 Dynamic Simulation 2157.5.2 Automatic Process Control 2197.6 Cost Estimation and Economics 2207.6.1 Total Plant Cost 2207.6.2 Economic Analysis 2257.7 Life Cycle Assessment 227References 2288 Rankine Cycle Systems 2308.1 Basic Rankine Cycle 2318.2 Addition of Superheating 2338.3 Addition of Reheat 2368.4 Addition of Economizer and Regenerative Feedwater Heating 2388.5 Supercritical Rankine Cycle 2418.6 The Steam Cycle 2418.7 Coal-Fired Power Generation 2448.7.1 Coal-Fired Boilers 2448.7.2 Emissions and Control 2458.7.3 Description of a Large Supercritical Steam Rankine Cycle 2518.8 Plant-Derived Biomass-Fired Power Generation 2558.8.1 Feedstock Characteristics 2558.8.2 Biomass-Fired Boilers 2568.8.3 Cofiring Biomass in Coal-Fired Boilers 2568.8.4 Emissions 2578.9 Municipal Solid Waste Fired Power Generation 2588.9.1 MSW-Fired Boilers 2588.9.2 Emissions Control 2598.10 Low-Temperature Cycles 2608.10.1 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) 260References 2629 Brayton–Rankine Combined Cycle Systems 2649.1 Combined Cycle 2649.1.1 Gas Turbine Cycles for Combined Cycles 2659.1.2 Steam Cycles for Combined Cycles 2669.2 Natural Gas-Fueled Plants 2679.2.1 Description of a Large Combined Cycle 2679.2.2 No X Control 2729.2.3 CO and Volatile Organic Compounds Control 2729.2.4 CO 2 Emissions Control 2739.2.5 Characteristics of Combined Cycles 2769.3 Coal and Biomass Fueled Plants 2799.3.1 Gasification 2809.3.2 Gasifier Feedstocks 2829.3.3 Key Technologies in IGCC Systems 2839.3.4 Description of an IGCC 2879.3.5 Advantages of an IGCC 2919.3.6 Economies of Scale and Biomass Gasification 2919.4 Indirectly Fired Cycle 291References 29410 Coproduction and Cogeneration 29610.1 Types of Coproducts and Synergy in Coproduction 29710.2 Syngas Generation for Coproduction 29810.2.1 Gasifiers 29810.2.2 Reformers 29910.2.3 Shift Reactors 30010.3 Syngas Conversion to Some Key Coproducts 30210.3.1 Methanol 30210.3.2 Urea 30510.3.3 Fischer–Tropsch Liquids 30910.4 Hydrogen Coproduction from Coal and Biomass 31510.4.1 Current Technology Plant 31510.4.2 Advanced Technology Plant 31810.5 Combined Heat and Power 32210.5.1 LiBr Absorption Refrigeration 325References 32811 Advanced Systems 33011.1 High Temperature Membrane Separators 33011.1.1 Ceramic Membranes 33111.1.2 Application of Membranes to Air Separation 33311.1.3 Application of Membranes to H 2 Separation 33411.2 Fuel Cells 33411.2.1 Basic Electrochemistry and Transport Phenomena 33711.2.2 Real Fuel Cell Behavior 33911.2.3 Overall Cell Performance 34211.2.4 A Fuel Cell Power Generation System 34511.2.5 Major Fuel Cell Type Characteristics 34711.2.6 Hybrid Cycles 35111.2.7 A Coal-Fueled Hybrid System 35411.3 Chemical Looping 35411.4 Magnetohydrodynamics 356References 35712 Renewables and Nuclear 35912.1 Wind 36012.1.1 Wind Resources and Plant Siting 36112.1.2 Key Equipment 36312.1.3 Economics 36412.1.4 Environmental Issues 36512.2 Solar 36512.2.1 Solar Resources and Plant Siting 36612.2.2 Key Equipment 36612.2.3 Economics 36812.2.4 Environmental Issues 36912.3 Geothermal 37112.3.1 Geothermal Resources and Plant Siting 37112.3.2 Key Equipment 37212.3.3 Economics 37612.3.4 Environmental Issues 37712.4 Nuclear 37812.4.1 Nuclear Fuel Resources and Plant Siting 37912.4.2 Key Equipment 38012.4.3 Economics 38112.4.4 Environmental Issues 38212.5 Electric Grid Stability and Dependence on Fossil Fuels 38312.5.1 Super and Micro Grids 385References 385Appendix: Acronyms and Abbreviations, Symbols and Units 387Index 396