Greek

Geoffrey Horrocks is Professor of Comparative Philology at the University of Cambridge, UK, and Fellow of St John's College. His previous books include Space and Time in Homer (1981), Generative Grammar (1987), Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers (1997), and The Blackwell History of the Latin Language (with James Clackson, 2007).

"Highly recommended. Lower-division undergraduates through faculty; general readers." (Choice, 1 February 2011)"…one of Horrocks' greatest achievements is the skill with which he demonstrates the special value of the history of Greek, thinking about the Greek language in terms of breadth and depth that are unusual among linguists working on Greek." (Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 9 May 2011)

• Preface to the First Edition xiiPreface to the Second Edition xvIPA Chart xviiThe Greek Alphabet xviiiIntroduction: The Scope and Purpose of This Book 1Part I Ancient Greek: From Mycenae to the Roman Empire 71 The Ancient Greek Dialects 91.1 The Coming of the ‘Greeks’ to Greece 91.2 The Earliest Records: Mycenaean Greek 101.3 Greek Dialect Relations and the Place of Mycenaean 131.4 Some Examples 241.4.1 Some basic dialect characteristics 241.4.2 West Greek 28(a) Laconian 28(b) Cretan 29(c) Elean 30(d) Phocian 311.4.3 Aeolic 32(a) Boeotian 32(b) Thessalian 33(c) Lesbian 341.4.4 East Greek 36(a) Arcadian 36(b) Ionic 37(c) Attic 402 Classical Greek: Official and Literary ‘Standards’ 432.1 Introduction 432.2 The Language of Homer and its Influence 442.2.1 Ionian epic 442.2.2 Ionian elegy and iambus 492.2.3 Personal lyric 502.2.4 Choral lyric 532.2.5 Athenian drama 562.3 Official and Literary Ionic 603 The Rise of Attic 673.1 Attic as a Literary Standard 673.2 ‘Great Attic’ as an Administrative Language 734 Greek in the Hellenistic World 794.1 Introduction 794.2 The Koine as an Extension of Great Attic 804.3 The Impact and Status of the Koine 834.4 The Fate of the Ancient Greek Dialects 844.4.1 Introduction 844.4.2 Koineization: the case of Boeotian 844.4.3 Doric koines: Tsakonian 874.5 The Koine in the Hellenistic Kingdoms 884.6 The Koine as an Official Language 894.6.1 Introduction 894.6.2 Macedonian Koine: the development of infinitival constructions 904.6.3 The articular infinitive 944.7 Language and Literature in the Hellenistic World: The Koine as a Literary Dialect 964.7.1 Introduction 964.7.2 Historiography: Polybius 974.7.3 The Koine as the language of technical prose 984.7.4 Reaction against the Koine: Hellenistic poetry 984.7.5 Reaction against the Koine: Asianism and Atticism 994.7.6 Popular literature: romances 1004.7.7 Drama: the ‘new’ Attic comedy and the mime 1014.7.8 Jewish literature: the Septuagint 1064.8 Clitic Pronouns and the Shift Towards VS Word Order 1084.9 Analogical Pressure on the Strong Aorist Paradigm 1094.10 The Spoken Koine: Regional Diversity 1104.10.1 Introduction 1104.10.2 Egypt 1114.10.3 Asia Minor 1134.11 Private Inscriptions and Papyri: Some Major Trends 1144.11.1 Introduction: datives, future periphrases, the nom-acc plural of consonant-stems 1144.11.2 Phonological developments 1174.11.3 Other morphological developments: partial merger of the 1st and 3rd declensions 1204.12 Conclusion 1225 Greek in the Roman Empire 1245.1 Roman Domination 1245.2 The Fate of Greek 1255.3 The Impact of Bilingualism: Greek and Latin in Contact 1265.4 Roman Attitudes to Greek Culture 1325.5 Atticism and the Second Sophistic 1335.6 Atticist Grammars and Lexica: Aelius Aristides 1375.7 The Official Koine in the Roman Republican Period 1415.8 Past-Tense Morphology 1435.9 Official Writing of the Roman Imperial Period 1445.10 ‘Colloquial’ Literature 1465.10.1 Epictetus 1465.10.2 The New Testament 1475.11 Later Christian Literature: Stylistic Levels 1525.11.1 The Apostolic Fathers 1525.11.2 The impact of Atticism 1555.11.3 Callinicus and Theodoret 1566 Spoken Koine in the Roman Period 1606.1 Introduction 1606.2 Summary of the Principal Developments in the Vowel System 1606.3 Some Illustrative Examples 1636.3.1 Athenian Attic 1636.3.2 Egyptian Koine 1656.4 The Development of the Consonant System 1706.5 Some Egyptian Texts 1726.5.1 Letter 1: clitic pronouns and word order, control verbs with i{na ['ina]-complements 1726.5.2 Letter 2: ‘short’ 2nd-declension forms, the merger of aorist and perfect 1746.5.3 Letter 3: the decline of 3rd-declension participles 1786.5.4 Letter 4: the decline of the dative 1836.6 Conclusion 187Part II Byzantium: From Constantine I to Mehmet the Conqueror 1897 Historical Prelude 1917.1 The Later Roman Empire 1917.2 The Age of Transition: Ioustinianós and the Arab Conquests 1947.3 The Middle Byzantine Period: Iconoclasm, Renaissance and Decline 1977.4 The Late Byzantine Period: Stabilization, Defeat and Fall 2008 Greek in the Byzantine Empire: The Major Issues 2078.1 Introduction 2078.2 Greek and Other Languages in the Early Byzantine Period 2078.3 The Prestige of Greek 2108.4 Greek in the Later Empire 2128.4.1 Introduction 2128.4.2 Byzantine Atticism 2138.4.3 The first experiments with the vernacular 2148.4.4 The vernacular literature of the 14th and 15th centuries 2168.4.5 The romances 2178.4.6 Other vernacular material 2198.5 ‘The Koine’ in Byzantium 2208.5.1 The inheritance from antiquity 2208.5.2 Academic and ecclesiastical Greek 2208.5.3 Official and administrative Greek 2218.5.4 Practical writing in the middle period 2228.5.5 Chronicles 2228.5.6 Christian exegetical literature and hagiography 2258.5.7 A new written standard in the later empire 2268.6 The Balkan Sprachbund: Future Formations 2278.7 Conclusion 2299 Byzantine Belles Lettres 2319.1 Introduction 2319.2 The Early Period: Prokópios (First Half of the 6th Century) 2319.3 The Middle Period: Michaél Psellós (1018–1078 or 1096) 2339.4 The Modal Imperfect 2379.5 The Late Period: Anna Komnené (1083–c.1153) 2389.6 After the Fall: Michaél Kritóboulos (15th Century) 2409.7 Conclusion 24210 The Written Koine in Byzantium 24410.1 Introduction 24410.2 Chronicles in the Early and Middle Periods 24510.2.1 Malálas (c.491–c.578): generics 24510.2.2 Theophánes the Confessor (c.760–818) 25110.3 Hagiography and Exegetical Works 25310.3.1 Ioánnes Móschos (c.550–619) 25310.3.2 St Germanós (c.640–733) 25610.4 Paraenetic Literature of the Middle Period 25810.4.1 Konstantínos VII Porphyrogénnetos (905–59) 25810.4.2 Kekauménos (11th century) 26210.5 The Metaphrases of the Palaiologan Period 26410.6 Academic Greek in the Late Period: Máximos Planoúdes (c.1255–c.1305) 26810.7 Official Greek of the Later Empire 27010.8 Conclusion 27111 Spoken Greek in the Byzantine Empire: The Principal Developments 27311.1 Introduction 27311.2 The Completion of Sound Changes Beginning in Antiquity 27411.3 Grammatical Consequences of Aphaeresis 27711.4 Old and New Patterns of Subordination: Clitic Pronouns and VSO Order 27711.5 Dialect Diversity in Medieval Greek 28111.6 Later Phonetic and Phonological Developments 28111.7 Nominal Morphology and Syntax 28411.7.1 The dative case, prepositional phrases 28411.7.2 Feminine nouns of the 1st declension: paradigm standardization 28511.7.3 Masculine nouns of the 1st declension: paradigm standardization 28611.7.4 Interplay between the 1st and 3rd declensions: imparisyllabic paradigms 28611.7.5 Neuters 28811.7.6 The definite article 28911.7.7 Adjectives 28911.7.8 Pronouns 292(a) Indefinite pronouns 292(b) Interrogative pronouns 293(c) Relative pronouns 293(d) Demonstrative pronouns 295(e) Personal pronouns 29611.8 Verb Morphology and Syntax 29611.8.1 The infinitive 29611.8.2 Participles 29711.8.3 Futures and conditionals, pluperfects and perfects 29811.8.4 The spread of k-aorists: the aorist passive 30211.8.5 Imperfective stem formation 303(a) The fate of the -mi [-mi] verbs 303(b) Nasal suffixes 305(c) The suffixes -avzw [-'azo]/-ivzw [-'izo] 307(d) The suffix -euvw [-'evo] and its influence: verbs in -ptw [-pto] 312(e) The contract verbs 31311.8.6 Personal endings 316(a) Indicative and subjunctive 317(b) Past-tense morphology: active and aorist middle/ passive; the augment 318(c) The active paradigm: present tense 319(d) The middle/passive paradigm: present tense 320(e) The middle/passive paradigm: the imperfect 32011.9 Conclusion 32312 Texts in the ‘Vernacular’ 32512.1 The Early and Middle Periods 32512.1.1 Introduction 32512.1.2 The Protobulgarian inscriptions 32512.1.3 Acclamations: origins of the ‘political’ verse form 32712.2 Vernacular Literature of the 12th Century 33312.2.1 The epic of Digenés Akrítes 33312.2.2 Ptochopródromos 33712.3 The 14th and 15th Centuries: The Palaiologan Court and Frankish Rule 34212.3.1 The original romances of the Palaiologan period 34212.3.2 Greek–Romance contact: perfects/pluperfects, negative polarity, clitics 34512.3.3 The Chronicle of the Morea 34912.3.4 The translated romances 35712.4 The First Dialect Literature: Cyprus and Crete 36012.4.1 Introduction 36012.4.2 Early dialect literature in Cyprus: Machairás’ chronicle 36212.4.3 Early vernacular literature in Crete 36612.5 Conclusion 368Part III Modern Greek: From the Ottoman Empire to the European Union 37113 Ottoman Rule and the War of Independence 37313.1 The Early Years 37313.2 Ottoman Decline 37413.3 Revolution and Independence 37714 Spoken Greek in the Ottoman Period 37914.1 The Impact of Turkish 37914.2 The Spoken Dialects of Modern Greek 38114.2.1 Introduction: diversification, and the basis for a modern spoken standard 38114.2.2 Local vernaculars in the central region; Sofianós’ grammar and the educated standard 38414.2.3 Greek in the west: the South Italian dialects 38814.2.4 Greek in the south and south-east: the Dodecanese, Cyprus and Crete 39114.2.5 Greek in the east: Pontus and Cappadocia 39814.2.6 The northern dialects 40414.3 Popular Culture in the Turkish Period: The Folk Songs 40615 Written Greek in the Turkish Period 41315.1 Continuity 41315.2 The Impact of the Enlightenment 41915.3 Contemporary ‘Demotic’ 42315.4 The Roots of the ‘Language Question’ 42616 The History of the Modern Greek State 42816.1 Irredentism: Triumph and Disaster 42816.2 Dictatorship and War 43116.3 Recovery, the Colonels and the Restoration of Democracy 43317 The ‘Language Question’ and its Resolution 43817.1 Koraís 43817.2 The Roots of Demoticism: Solomós and the Ionian Islands 44217.3 The Rise of Katharévousa 44517.4 Reaction: Psycháris and the Demoticist Programme 44617.5 The Progress of Demoticism 45417.6 The 20th Century: Crisis and Resolution 45617.7 Standard Modern Greek 46217.8 A Range of Styles 466Bibliography 471Index 493