Effects of Sound on People

James P. Cowan is a board-certified noise control engineer with more than 30 years of experience in noise control, architectural acoustics, and environmental noise issues. He has consulted to public agencies, architects, engineers, industrial personnel, and attorneys in all areas of noise control; hearing damage and protection criteria; and acoustic design of all types of spaces. Mr. Cowan has lectured on acoustical topics to thousands of professionals, delivering live seminars and webinars, and teaching courses for universities, professional societies, and private organizations across the US for more than 25 years. In addition to several book chapters and many published articles, Mr. Cowan is the author of Architectural Acoustics Design Guide, published by McGraw-Hill in 2000, Architectural Acoustics, an interactive educational CD set published by McGraw-Hill in 1999, and Handbook of Environmental Acoustics, a reference book in community noise issues published by Van Nostrand Reinhold (subsequently Wiley) in 1994.

• List of Figures xiList of Tables xivAbout the Author xvSeries Preface xviPreface xvii1 Acoustic Parameters 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Sound generation 11.2.1 Frequency 21.2.2 Wavelength 41.3 Sound Propagation 51.3.1 Unimpeded divergence 61.3.2 Impeded Propagation 7Reflection 8Refraction 8Diffraction 9Diffusion 101.3.3 Sound Behavior Indoors 10Echo 11Room modes 11Reverberation 131.3.4 Sound Behavior Outdoors 14Atmospheric absorption 14Atmospheric refraction 15Ground effects 16Vegetation effects 17References 182 Sound Description 192.1 Introduction 192.2 The Decibel Scale 192.3 Frequency Weighting Networks 212.3.1 Loudness 212.3.2 Weighting scales 242.4 Frequency Band Analysis 262.4.1 Noise by color 282.5 Common Sound Descriptors 292.5.1 Environmental descriptors 292.5.2 Sound propagation in terms of sound levels 32Divergence 32Refraction and diffraction 33Reverberation 33Sound fields 34References 353 Sound Perception 363.1 Introduction 363.2 Human Hearing Apparatus and mechanism 363.2.1 Outer ear 373.2.2 Middle ear 383.2.3 Inner ear 403.2.4 Signal processing in the brain 44Localization 44Masking and audibility 453.2.5 Vestibular system 463.3 Alternate Sound Perception Mechanisms 473.3.1 Bone conduction 473.3.2 Cartilage hearing 473.3.3 Tinnitus 483.3.4 Electromagnetic hearing 483.4 Hypersensitivities 493.4.1 Hyperacusis/misophonia 503.4.2 Electrohypersensitivity 503.5 Low‐frequency and Infrasound Perception 51References 534 Physiological Effects of Sound Exposure 574.1 Introduction 574.2 Body Resonance and Damage Potential 574.3 Hearing Loss 594.3.1 Presbycusis 594.3.2 Noise‐induced Hearing Loss 614.3.3 Hearing Loss from Illness or Agents 654.4 Cardiovascular Disease 664.4.1 Hypertension 684.4.2 Ischemic Diseases 704.5 Vibroacoustic Disease 714.6 Low‐frequency Noise Concerns 724.7 Infrasound Concerns 74References 765 Psychological Effects of Sound Exposure 815.1 Introduction 815.2 Annoyance 815.3 Stress 855.4 Sleep Disturbance 865.5 Learning Disabilities 895.5.1 Cognitive Development/School Performance 915.5.2 Office/Occupational 935.6 Emotional Effects 96References 976 Sound Sources Associated with Negative Effects 1026.1 Introduction 1026.2 Transportation Sources 1026.2.1 Roadway Traffic 1046.2.2 Aircraft 106Fixed wing 107Rotary wing 1086.2.3 Rail 1096.3 Industry and Utilities 1096.3.1 Power Plants 1106.3.2 Wind Farms 1116.3.3 Electrical Power Systems 1166.4 Personal/Recreational Sources 1166.4.1 Firearms 1176.4.2 Public performances 1176.4.3 Toys/personal Listening Devices 1186.4.4 Appliances/Tools 1196.5 Hums 1196.6 Acoustic Weapons 121References 1227 Positive Effects of Sound 1267.1 Introduction 1267.2 Music Psychology 1267.3 Sound Therapies 1297.4 Natural Sources/Soundscapes 1307.5 Using Sound to Influence People 133References 1368 Sound Control and Regulation 1408.1 Introduction 1408.2 Sound Control Fundamentals 1408.2.1 Absorption 1418.2.2 Transmission Control 1438.2.3 Partial Barriers 1498.2.4 Cancellation 1528.2.5 Control at the Source 1538.2.6 Control in the Path between the Source and Listener 1548.2.7 Control at the Listener 156Acoustic Privacy 1578.3 Regulations and Guidelines 1588.3.1 Occupational 1598.3.2 Environmental 161National 161Local 1658.4 Current and Future Research 166References 167Glossary 169Index 181