Machining of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys

Professor Helmi A. Youssef, born in August, 1938 in Alexandria, Egypt, has acquired his B.Sc. in Production Engineering, Alexandria University in 1960. He completed then his scientific building in Carolo-Welhelmina, TH Braunschweig in Germany, during the period 1961-1967, where he acquired his Dipl.-Ing., and Dr.-Ing. Degree in the domain of Non-traditional Machining. In Alexandria University, he has been promoted to associate, then since 1978 to full professor. In the period 1995-1998, professor Youssef was the chairman of the Production Engineering Dept., and since 1989, he was a member of the scientific committee for promotion of professors in Egyptian Universities.  Between 1975 and 1998, he was a visiting professor in many Arab, and German Universities. He established his own laboratories, and supervised many M.Sc. and Ph D theses. Professor Youssef has organized and participated in international conferences. He has published many scientific papers in specialized journals, and authored books in his fields of specialization; two of which have been published by CRC, on machining and manufacturing technologies, in 2008, and 2011, respectively. Currently, Prof. Youssef is Emeritus Professor in PED, Alexandria University.

• Preface xiiiAbout the Author xixAcknowledgments xxiNomenclature xxiiiGlossary xxvii1 Introduction 11.1 Stainless Steels and Super Alloys as Difficult‐to‐Cut Materials 11.1.1 Historical Background of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 21.1.1.1 Stainless Steels 21.1.1.2 Super Alloys 31.1.2 Industrial Applications of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 31.1.2.1 Stainless Steels 31.1.2.2 Super Alloys 41.2 Traditional and Nontraditional Machining Processes 41.2.1 Importance of Machining in Manufacturing Technology 41.2.2 Classification of Machining Processes 61.2.3 Variables of Machining Processes 91.2.3.1 Input (Independent) Variables 91.2.3.2 Output (Dependent) Variables 9References 102 Types and Classifications of Stainless Steels 112.1 Role of Alloying Elements in Stainless Steels 112.2 Types of Stainless Steels 132.2.1 Basic Alloys of Stainless Steels (Ferritic, Martensitic, Austenitic) 132.2.1.1 Ferritic Stainless Steels of AISI‐Designations 132.2.1.2 Martensitic Stainless Steels also of AISI‐Designation 182.2.1.3 Austenitic Stainless Steels of AISI‐Designation 192.2.2 Derived Alloys of Stainless Steels (Duplex, PH‐Alloys) 222.3 Concluding Comments and Comparative Characteristics 23References 263 Types and Classifications of Super Alloys 273.1 General Features and Classifications 273.2 Types of Super Alloys 283.2.1 Fe‐Base Alloys 313.2.2 Ni‐Base Alloys 343.2.3 Co‐Base Alloys 39References 414 Traditional Machining – Machinability, Tooling, and Cutting Fluids 434.1 Machinability Concept in Metal Cutting 434.1.1 Definition and General Aspects 434.1.2 Quantifying and Criteria of Machinability 444.1.2.1 Tool Life Criterion 464.1.2.2 Cutting Forces and Power Consumption Criterion 484.1.2.3 Surface Finish Criterion 504.1.3 Enhancing Machinability of Difficult‐to‐Cut Materials 504.1.3.1 Adoption of Free Machining Steels and Alloys 504.1.3.2 Thermally Assisted Machining (Hot Machining) 524.1.3.3 High Speed Machining 524.1.3.4 Ultrasonic‐Assisted Machining 604.1.3.5 Advanced Cooling Techniques 614.1.3.6 Cryogenic Treatment of Tool Materials 634.2 Cutting Tool Materials 634.2.1 Characteristics of an Ideal Tool Material 644.2.2 Types of Cutting Tool Materials 654.2.2.1 High Speed Steel (HSS) 654.2.2.2 Cast Nonferrous Alloys (Stellite and UCON) 674.2.2.3 Cemented Carbides (Widia) 694.2.2.4 Cemented Titanium Carbides (TiC‐Based Tools) 734.2.2.5 Cermets 734.2.2.6 Ceramics (Alumina‐Based Tools) 734.2.2.7 SiAlON 744.2.2.8 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) 744.2.2.9 Diamond 754.2.3 Tool Materials for Machining of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 754.2.3.1 Cutting Tool Materials for Stainless Steels 764.2.3.2 Tool Materials for Super Alloys 774.3 Cutting Fluids for Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 814.3.1 Functions, Characteristics, and General Considerations 814.3.2 Types of Cutting Fluids 824.3.2.1 Water‐Base Liquids 824.3.2.2 Neat Oils 834.3.2.3 Liquid Gas or Cryogenic Coolants 834.3.2.4 Solid Lubricants 844.3.3 Application Methods 844.3.4 Cutting Fluids for Stainless Steels 854.3.4.1 Sulfo‐chlorinated Cutting Oils 854.3.4.2 Emulsifiable Fluids 864.3.4.3 Selection of Cutting Fluid for Stainless Steels 874.3.5 Cutting Fluids for Super Alloys 884.3.5.1 Turning, Planing, Shaping, and Boring 884.3.5.2 Broaching 884.3.5.3 Drilling and Reaming 894.3.5.4 Tapping and Thread Cutting 894.3.5.5 Milling 894.3.5.6 Sawing 894.3.5.7 Grinding 89References 915 Traditional Machining of Stainless Steels 935.1 Machinability of Stainless Steels 935.1.1 Free‐Machining Additives of Stainless Steels 945.1.2 Machinability of Free‐ and Nonfree‐Machining Stainless Steels 975.1.2.1 Ferritic and Martensitic Alloys 995.1.2.2 Austenitic Alloys 1005.1.2.3 Duplex Alloys 1015.1.2.4 PH‐Alloys 1025.1.3 Enhanced Machining Stainless Steels 1025.1.4 Machinability Ratings of Stainless Steels 1025.2 Traditional Machining Processes of Stainless Steels 1035.2.1 Turning 1035.2.1.1 Form Turning and Cutting Off 1045.2.2 Drilling 1065.2.2.1 Important Hints When Drilling Stainless Steels 1075.2.3 Reaming 1105.2.3.1 Tool Geometry of Reamers for Stainless Steels 1105.2.3.2 Reaming Parameters 1115.2.4 Milling 1115.2.5 Broaching 1125.2.6 Grinding 1145.3 Surface Treatments of Stainless Steel after Machining 1145.3.1 Chemical Cleaning (Pickling) 1155.3.2 Passivating 116References 1186 Traditional Machining of Super Alloys 1196.1 Machinability Aspects of Super Alloys 1196.2 Machinability Rating of Super Alloys 1206.2.1 Machinability as Based on Tool Life and Nominal Cutting Speeds 1216.2.2 Machinability as Based on Specific Cutting Energy 1246.3 Traditional Machining Processes (TMPs) of Super Alloys 1256.3.1 Challenges and Machining Guidelines for Super Alloys 1266.3.2 Turning 1276.3.3 Drilling 1306.3.4 Reaming 1336.3.5 Milling 1336.3.6 Broaching 1376.3.7 Grinding 1396.3.7.1 Selection of Grinding Wheel Designation 139References 1407 Nontraditional Machining Processes – an Overview 1417.1 Nontraditional Machining Processes 1417.2 Mechanical Nontraditional Processes 1427.2.1 Jet Machining 1427.2.1.1 Abrasive Jet Machining 1427.2.1.2 Water Jet Machining 1437.2.1.3 Abrasive Water Jet Machining 1457.2.2 Abrasive Flow Machining 1467.2.2.1 Parameters Affecting MRR of AFM 1477.2.2.2 Advantages of AFM 1477.2.3 Ultrasonic Machining 1477.2.3.1 Transducer and Magnetostriction Effect 1497.2.3.2 Acoustic Horns (Mechanical Amplifiers or Concentrators) 1507.2.3.3 Process Capabilities 1507.3 Electrochemical and Chemical Machining Processes 1517.3.1 Electrochemical Machining 1517.3.1.1 Process Capabilities 1527.3.1.2 Pulsed Electrochemical Machining (PECM) 1547.3.1.3 Shaped Tube Electrolytic Machining (STEM) 1567.3.1.4 Electro‐stream (ES) or Capillary Drilling 1587.3.2 Electrochemical Grinding 1597.3.3 Chemical Machining 1607.3.3.1 Chemical Milling (CH‐milling) 1607.3.3.2 Photochemical Machining (Spray Etching) 1627.4 Thermoelectric Processes 1647.4.1 Electrical Discharge Machining 1647.4.1.1 Types of Generators, Applicable for ED‐Machines 1657.4.1.2 Process Capabilities 1657.4.2 Electron Beam Machining 1667.4.3 Laser Beam Machining 1687.4.4 Plasma Arc Cutting 1727.5 Nontraditional Machining Processes – an Outlook 173References 1778 Nontraditional Machining of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 1798.1 Mechanical Nontraditional Machining Processes of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 1798.1.1 Jet Machining 1798.1.2 Ultrasonic Machining (USM) of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 1808.1.3 Abrasive Flow Machining of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 1818.2 Electrochemical and Chemical Machining Processes of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 1838.2.1 Electrochemical Machining 1838.2.2 Shaped Tube Electrolytic Machining (STEM) of Stainless Steel and Super Alloys 1948.2.3 Electro‐stream (ES) Machining of Stainless Steel and Super Alloys 1968.2.4 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 1968.2.5 Chemical Milling (CH‐Milling) 1968.2.5.1 MRR and Depth Tolerance 1978.2.5.2 Surface Quality 1988.2.6 Photochemical Machining (Spray Etching) 1998.3 Thermoelectric Machining Processes 2018.3.1 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) 2018.3.2 Electrical Discharge Milling of SSs and SAs 2048.3.2.1 Fields of Applications of ED‐Milling 2048.3.2.2 Advantages and Limitations of ED‐Milling 2058.3.3 Electron Beam Machining 2068.3.4 Laser Beam Machining 2068.3.5 Plasma Arc Cutting 2108.4 Economical Analysis of ECM and Thermo‐electrical Processes of Turbo‐machinery Components 2118.5 Nontraditional Micro‐drilling of Deep Holes – a Comparison 2148.6 Thermally‐Assisted Machining of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 2148.6.1 Surface Integrity and Removal Rates for TAM of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 2158.6.2 Laser Assisted Turning (LAM) of Inconel‐ 718 2168.6.3 Plasma Assisted Turning (PAT) of Super Alloys and PH‐Stainless Steel 217References 2189 Current and Recent Developments Regarding Machining of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 2219.1 General Considerations 2219.2 Recent Research Work Related to Traditional Machining of Stainless Steels 2229.3 Recent Research Works Related to Traditional Machining of Super Alloys 2309.4 Recent Research Work Related to Nontraditional Machining of Stainless Steels and Super Alloys 242References 245Appendix 249Review Questions 253Index 265