Water Treatment for Purification from Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins

Anastasia E. Hiskia, is Research Director at the Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research Demokritos, Athens, Greece.Theodoros M. Triantis, is Senior Researcher at the Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research ???Demokritos, Athens, Greece.Maria G. Antoniou, is Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemical Engineering, Cyprus University of Technology, Lemesos, Cyprus.Triantafyllos Kaloudis, is head of the Organic Micropollutants Laboratory of the Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company, EYDAP SA, Greece.Dionysios D. Dionysiou, is Professor of Environmental Engineering and Science in the Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering at the University of Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.

• List of Contributors xiPreface xviiAcknowledgments xix1 Introduction to Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins 1Armah A. de la Cruz, Neill Chernoff, James L. Sinclair, Donna Hill, Deacqunita L. Diggs, and Arthur T. Lynch1.1 An Overview of Cyanobacteria 11.2 General Environmental Impact: Ecological and Human Health Effects 61.3 Health Effects of Cyanotoxins 81.4 Current Guidelines for Cyanotoxins 141.5 Taste and Odor Compounds Related to Cyanobacteria 181.6 Management Strategies of Cyanobacteria, Cyanotoxins, and Related Compounds in Water Treatments 19References 212 Cyanobacteria, Cyanotoxins, and Human Health 37Geoffrey A. Codd, Emanuela Testai, Enzo Funari, and Zorica Svirèev2.1 Introduction 372.2 Exposure Routes, Exposure Media, and Human Health 392.3 Cyanobacterial Cells and Cyanotoxins as Human Health Hazards and Risks 432.4 Reported Investigations of Roles of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins in Human Health Incidents 522.5 Recognition and Reporting of Role(s) of Cyanobacteria/Cyanotoxins in Health Incidents 572.6 Role of Human Health Incidents in Contributing to Cyanobacterial and Cyanotoxin Risk Management Policies 582.7 Importance of Contingency Plans and Outreach Activities 58References 593 Removal of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins by Conventional Physical-chemical Treatment 69Margarida Ribau Teixeira, Maria João Rosa, Sabrina Sorlini, Michela Biasibetti, Christophoros Christophoridis, and Christine Edwards3.1 Introduction 693.2 Chemical Treatment 713.3 Coagulation and Flocculation 753.4 Dissolved Air Flotation 763.5 Rapid Sand/Gravity Filtration 803.6 Slow Sand Filtration 813.7 Bank Filtration 833.8 Activated Carbon Adsorption 853.9 Conclusions 88References 894 Removal of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins by Membrane Processes 99Mike B. Dixon, Lionel Ho, and Maria G. Antoniou4.1 Introduction 994.2 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 1004.3 Nanofiltration 1014.4 Nanofiltration for the Combined Removal of Various Cyanobacterial Metabolites 1024.5 Reverse Osmosis 1084.6 Integrated Studies: Ultrafiltration Combined with PAC and Coagulants 108Acknowledgement 114References 1145 Biological Treatment for the Destruction of Cyanotoxins 117Dariusz Dziga, Sonja Nybom, Ilona Gagala, and Marcin Wasylewski5.1 Introduction 1175.2 Overview of Microbial Degradation 1185.3 The Mechanisms of Biodegradation 1245.4 Biological Methods of Cyanotoxin Elimination 1295.5 Guide to Evaluating Biodegradation 1335.6 Microbial Water Treatment – Application and Case Studies 1425.7 Conclusions 145Acknowledgements 145References 1466 Conventional Disinfection and/or Oxidation Processes for the Destruction of Cyanotoxins/Cyanobacteria 155Sylvain Merel, Shuwen Yan, and Weihua Song6.1 Reaction of Chlorine and its Derivatives with Cyanotoxins 1556.2 Reaction of Ozone with Cyanotoxins 1626.3 Reaction of Permanganate (KMnO4) with Cyanotoxins 166References 1677 Advanced Oxidation Processes 173Geshan Zhang, Xuexiang He, Xiaodi Duan, Ying Huang, Changseok Han, Mallikarjuna N. Nadagouda, Kevin O’Shea, Duk Kyung Kim, Virender K. Sharma, Natalie Johnson, Bangxing Ren, Vasileia Vogiazi, Theodora Fotiou, Christophoros Christophoridis, Anastasia E. Hiskia, and Dionysios D. Dionysiou7.1 Introduction 1737.2 UV 1747.3 UV/H2O2 1757.4 O3/H2O2 1767.5 UV/O3 1777.6 Catalytic Ozonation 1787.7 Fenton/Photo-Fenton Reagent 1797.8 TiO2-Based Photocatalysis/Visible Light Sensitized TiO2 1807.9 Radiolysis 1827.10 Ultrasonic Degradation 1847.11 Ferrate 1867.12 Other Iron-based Processes 1877.13 Sulfaten Radical-based AOPs 1897.14 Polyoxometalate Photocatalysis 1917.15 Conclusion 195Acknowledgments 195References 1968 Removal and/or Destruction of Cyanobacterial Taste and Odour Compounds by Conventional and Advanced Oxidation Processes 207Carlos J. Pestana, Linda A. Lawton, and Triantafyllos Kaloudis8.1 Introduction 2078.2 Conventional Water Treatment 2108.3 Advanced Treatment Methods 2188.4 Side Note: T&O Compound Concentrations and Customer Perception 224References 2249 Transformation Products (TPs) of Cyanobacterial Metabolites During Treatment 231Theodora Fotiou, Theodoros M. Triantis, Anastasia E. Hiskia, Dariusz Dziga, Sylvain Merel, Christine Edwards, and Maria G. Antoniou9.1 Introduction 2319.2 TPs Formed in the Natural Environment 2339.3 Transformation Products of Microcystins and Nodularins with Advanced Oxidation Processes/ Technologies and Conventional Chemical Oxidation 2369.4 Transformation Products of Microcystins and Nodularins with Biological Treatment 2799.5 Transformation Products of Cylindrospermopsin 2879.6 Transformation Products of Odor Compounds 2929.7 Conclusions 298Acknowledgements 298References 29810 Integrated Drinking Water Processes: Case Studies 307Tomasz Jurczak, Andrzej Jodlowski, Sabrina Sorlini, Michela Biasibetti, and Francesca Gialdini10.1 Introduction 30710.2 Pilot Plant Studies for Optimization of Water Treatment Processes in Microcystins Removal 30810.3 Removal of Cyanobacterial Cells and Microcystin-LR with a Microfiltration Pilot Plant (Lake Garda, Italy) 31210.4 Removal of Cyanobacterial Cells and Cyanotoxins in a Conventional Full-scale DWTP (Lake Vico, Italy) 31410.5 Efficiency of Water Treatment Processes in Elimination of Microcystins – Polish Examples 31710.6 Conclusions 324References 324Index 327