Mobile Positioning and Tracking

Simone Frattasi, PhD, is currently Head of the Patent Section of Sony Mobile Communications in Lund, Sweden. Previously, he worked as Technical Project Manager at Aalborg University, Denmark. Francescantonio Della Rosa, MSc, works on hybrid data fusion and software development for GNSS receiver prototypes and mobile devices within the EU FP7 project, GRAMMAR (Galileo Ready Advanced Mass Market Receiver), at Tampere University of Technology, Finland.

• About the Authors xvList of Contributors xviiPreface xixAcknowledgements xxiList of Abbreviations xxiiiNotations xxxi1 Introduction 1Joaõ Figueiras, Francescantonio Della Rosa and Simone Frattasi1.1 Application Areas of Positioning (Chapter 2) 51.2 Basics of Wireless Communications for Positioning (Chapter 3) 51.3 Fundamentals of Positioning (Chapter 4) 51.4 Data Fusion and Filtering Techniques (Chapter 5) 61.5 Fundamentals of Tracking (Chapter 6) 61.6 Error Mitigation Techniques (Chapter 7) 71.7 Positioning Systems and Technologies (Chapter 8) 71.8 Ultrawideband Positioning and Tracking (Chapter 9) 81.9 Indoor Positioning in WLAN (Chapter 10) 81.10 Cooperative Multi-tag Localization in RFID Systems (Chapter 11) 91.11 Cooperative Mobile Positioning (Chapter 12) 92 Application Areas of Positioning 11Simone Frattasi2.1 Introduction 112.2 Localization Framework 112.3 Location-based Services 132.3.1 LBS Ecosystem 132.3.2 Taxonomies 152.3.3 Context Awareness 262.3.4 Privacy 292.4 Location-based Network Optimization 322.4.1 Radio Network Planning 322.4.2 Radio Resource Management 322.5 Patent Trends 352.6 Conclusions 393 Basics of Wireless Communications for Positioning 43Gilberto Berardinelli and Nicola Marchetti3.1 Introduction 433.2 Radio Propagation 443.2.1 Path Loss 453.2.2 Shadowing 483.2.3 Small-scale Fading 493.2.4 Radio Propagation and Mobile Positioning 523.2.5 RSS-based Positioning 543.3 Multiple-antenna Techniques 553.3.1 Spatial Diversity 553.3.2 Spatial Multiplexing 563.3.3 Gains Obtained by Exploiting the Spatial Domain 573.3.4 MIMO and Mobile Positioning 593.4 Duplexing Methods 593.4.1 Simplex Systems 593.4.2 Half-duplex 593.4.3 Full Duplex 603.5 Modulation and Multiple-access Techniques 613.5.1 Modulation Techniques 613.5.2 Multiple-access Techniques 653.5.3 OFDMA and Mobile Positioning 673.6 Radio Resource Management and Mobile Positioning 673.6.1 Handoff, Channel Reuse and Interference Adaptation 673.6.2 Power Control 693.7 Synchronization 703.7.1 Centralized Synchronization 703.7.2 Distributed Synchronization 713.8 Cooperative Communications 723.8.1 Cooperative MIMO 733.8.2 Clustering 743.8.3 Cooperative Routing 753.8.4 RSS-based Cooperative Positioning 753.9 Cognitive Radio and Mobile Positioning 753.10 Conclusions 784 Fundamentals of Positioning 81João Figueiras4.1 Introduction 814.2 Classification of Positioning Infrastructures 814.2.1 Positioning-system Topology 824.2.2 Physical Coverage Range 834.2.3 Integration of Positioning Solutions 844.3 Types of Measurements and Methods for their Estimation 854.3.1 Cell ID 854.3.2 Signal Strength 854.3.3 Time of Arrival 864.3.4 Time Difference of Arrival 874.3.5 Angle of Arrival 884.3.6 Personal-information Identification 894.4 Positioning Techniques 894.4.1 Proximity Sensing 894.4.2 Triangulation 914.4.3 Fingerprinting 954.4.4 Dead Reckoning 984.4.5 Hybrid Approaches 984.5 Error Sources in Positioning 1004.5.1 Propagation 1004.5.2 Geometry 1044.5.3 Equipment and Technology 1054.6 Metrics of Location Accuracy 1064.6.1 Circular Error Probability 1064.6.2 Dilution of Precision 1064.6.3 Cramér–Rao Lower Bound 1074.7 Conclusions 1075 Data Fusion and Filtering Techniques 109João Figueiras5.1 Introduction 1095.2 Least-squares Methods 1105.2.1 Linear Least Squares 1115.2.2 Recursive Least Squares 1125.2.3 Weighted Nonlinear Least Squares 1135.2.4 The Absolute/Local-minimum Problem 1175.3 Bayesian Filtering 1175.3.1 The Kalman Filter 1185.3.2 The Particle Filter 1245.3.3 Grid-based Methods 1265.4 Estimating Model Parameters and Biases in Observations 1265.4.1 Precalibration 1275.4.2 Joint Parameter and State Estimation 1275.5 Alternative Approaches 1285.5.1 Fingerprinting 1285.5.2 Time Series Data 1315.6 Conclusions 1326 Fundamentals of Tracking 135João Figueiras6.1 Introduction 1356.2 Impact of User Mobility on Positioning 1366.2.1 Localizing Static Devices 1366.2.2 Added Complexity in Tracking 1366.2.3 Additional Knowledge in Cooperative Environments 1366.3 Mobility Models 1376.3.1 Conventional Models 1376.3.2 Models Based on Stochastic Processes 1376.3.3 Geographical-restriction Models 1446.3.4 Group Mobility Models 1466.3.5 Social-based Models 1476.4 Tracking Moving Devices 1506.4.1 Mitigating Obstructions in the Propagation Conditions 1506.4.2 Tracking Nonmaneuvering Targets 1516.4.3 Tracking Maneuvering Targets 1526.4.4 Learning Position and Trajectory Patterns 1556.5 Conclusions 1607 Error Mitigation Techniques 163Ismail Guvenc7.1 Introduction 1637.2 System Model 1657.2.1 Maximum-likelihood Algorithm for LOS Scenarios 1667.2.2 Cramér–Rao Lower Bounds for LOS Scenarios 1677.3 NLOS Scenarios: Fundamental Limits and Maximum-likelihood Solutions 1707.3.1 ML-based Algorithms 1707.3.2 Cramér–Rao Lower Bound 1737.4 Least-squares Techniques for NLOS Localization 1757.4.1 Weighted Least Squares 1757.4.2 Residual-weighting Algorithm 1767.5 Constraint-based Techniques for NLOS Localization 1787.5.1 Constrained LS Algorithm and Quadratic Programming 1787.5.2 Linear Programming 1787.5.3 Geometry-constrained Location Estimation 1807.5.4 Interior-point Optimization 1817.6 Robust Estimators for NLOS Localization 1827.6.1 Huber M-estimator 1827.6.2 Least Median Squares 1837.6.3 Other Robust Estimation Options 1847.7 Identify and Discard Techniques for NLOS Localization 1847.7.1 Residual Test Algorithm 1847.8 Conclusions 1888 Positioning Systems and Technologies 189Andreas Waadt, Guido Bruck and Peter Jung8.1 Introduction 1898.2 Satellite Positioning 1908.2.1 Overview 1908.2.2 Basic Principles 1918.2.3 Satellite Positioning Systems 1948.2.4 Accuracy and Reliability 1958.2.5 Drawbacks When Applied to Mobile Positioning 1958.3 Cellular Positioning 1968.3.1 Overview 1968.3.2 GSM 1978.3.3 UMTS 2068.3.4 LTE 2088.3.5 Emergency Applications in Cellular Networks 2118.3.6 Drawbacks When Applied to Mobile Positioning 2138.4 Wireless Local/Personal Area Network Positioning 2138.4.1 Solutions on Top of Wireless Local Networks 2138.4.2 Dedicated Solutions 2178.5 Ad hoc Positioning 2208.6 Hybrid Positioning 2208.6.1 Heterogeneous Positioning 2208.6.2 Cellular and WLAN 2218.6.3 Assisted GPS 2218.7 Conclusions 223Acknowledgements 2239 Ultra-wideband Positioning and Tracking 225Davide Dardari9.1 Introduction 2259.2 UWB Technology 2269.2.1 History and Definitions 2269.2.2 Theory 2269.2.3 Regulations 2289.3 The UWB Radio Channel 2309.3.1 Path Loss 2319.3.2 Multipath 2319.3.3 UWB Channel Models for Positioning 2329.4 UWB Standards 2339.4.1 IEEE 802.15.4a Standard 2339.4.2 IEEE 802.15.4f Standard 2359.4.3 Other Standards 2379.5 Time-of-arrival Measurements 2379.5.1 Two-way Ranging 2379.5.2 Time Difference of Arrival 2389.5.3 Fundamental Limits in TOA Estimation 2389.5.4 Main Issues in TOA Estimation 2409.5.5 Clock Drift 2429.6 Ranging Algoritms in Real Conditions 2439.6.1 ML TOA Estimation in the Presence of a Multipath 2439.6.2 Clock Drift Mitigation 2489.6.3 Localization and Tracking with UWB 2509.7 Passive UWB Localization 2539.7.1 UWB-RFID 2539.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 258Acknowledgments 26010 Indoor Positioning in WLAN 261Francescantonio Della Rosa, Mauro Pelosi and Jari Nurmi10.1 Introduction 26110.2 Potential and Limitations of WLAN 26210.3 Empirical Approaches 26310.3.1 Probe Requests and Beacon Frames 26410.3.2 Positioning Methods 26510.3.3 Evaluation Criteria for Indoor Positioning Systems Based on WLANs 27210.4 Error Sources in RSS Measurements 27410.4.1 Heterogeneous WiFi Cards 27510.4.2 Device Orientation 27710.4.3 Channel in the Presence of the User and Body Loss 27810.4.4 The Hand Grip 27810.5 Experimental Activities 27910.6 Conclusions 28111 Cooperative Multi-tag Localization in RFID Systems: Exploiting Multiplicity, Diversity and Polarization of Tags 283Tanveer Bhuiyan and Simone Frattasi11.1 Introduction 28311.2 RFID Positioning Systems 28511.2.1 Single-tag Localization 28511.3 Cooperative Multi-tag Localization 28611.3.1 Multi-tagged Objects and Persons 28611.3.2 Localization of Mobile RFID Readers: CoopAOA 29011.3.3 Performance Evaluation 29711.3.4 Experimental Activity for Tag Localization 30911.4 Conclusions 31412 Cooperative Mobile Positioning 315Simone Frattasi, Joaõ Figueiras and Francescantonio Della Rosa12.1 Introduction 31512.2 Cooperative Localization 31612.2.1 Robot Networks 31612.2.2 Wireless Sensor Networks 31712.2.3 Wireless Mobile Networks 32112.3 Cooperative Data Fusion and Filtering Techniques 32312.3.1 Coop-WNLLS: Cooperative Weighted Nonlinear Least Squares 32312.3.2 Coop-EKF: Cooperative Extended Kalman Filter 32612.4 COMET: A Cooperative Mobile Positioning System 32812.4.1 System Architecture 32812.4.2 Data Fusion Methods 33012.4.3 Performance Evaluation 33712.5 Experimental Activity in a Cooperative WLAN Scenario 34912.5.1 Scenario 35012.5.2 Results 35012.6 Conclusions 352References 353Index 373