MICHAEL C. JACKSON is Emeritus Professor at the University of Hull, editor- in-chief of Systems Research and Behavioral Science, and MD of Systems Research Ltd. He graduated from Oxford University, gained an MA from Lancaster University and a PhD from Hull, and has worked in the civil service, in academia and as a consultant. Between 1999 and 2011, Mike was Dean of Hull University Business School, leading it to triple-crown accreditation. Mike has been President of the International Federation for Systems Research and the International Society for the Systems Sciences. He is a Companion of the Association of Business Schools, a Chartered IT Professional, and a Fellow of the British Computer Society, the Cybernetics Society, the Chartered Management Institute, the Operational Research Society and the International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences. Mike has received many awards, two honorary degrees, and has been a visiting professor at numerous international universities. In 2011 he was awarded an OBE for services to higher education and business. In 2017 he received the Beale Medal of the UK Operational Research Society for 'a sustained contribution over many years to the theory, practice, or philosophy of Operational Research.' The previous version of this book Systems Thinking: Creative Holism for Managers was translated into four languages.

• Preface xviiIntroduction xxvPart I Systems Thinking in the Disciplines 11 Philosophy 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Kant 41.3 Hegel 81.4 Pragmatism 91.5 Husserl and Phenomenology 101.6 Radical Constructivism 111.7 Conclusion 122 The Physical Sciences and the Scientific Method 152.1 Introduction 152.2 The Scientific Method and the Scientific Revolution 162.3 The Physical Sciences in the Modern Era 192.4 The Scientific Method in the Modern Era 212.5 Extending the Scientific Method to Other Disciplines 242.6 Conclusion 253 The Life Sciences 273.1 Introduction 273.2 Biology 273.3 Ecology 353.4 Conclusion 404 The Social Sciences 434.1 Introduction 434.2 Functionalism 444.3 Interpretive Social Theory 494.4 The Sociology of Radical Change 524.5 Postmodernism and Poststructuralism 564.6 Integrationist Social Theory 594.7 Luhmann’s Social Systems Theory 624.8 Action Research 674.9 Conclusion 68Part II The Systems Sciences 715 General Systems Theory 755.1 Introduction 755.2 von Bertalanffy and General System Theory 755.3 von Bertalanffy’s Collaborators and the Society for General Systems Research 795.4 Miller and the Search for Isomorphisms at Different System Levels 805.5 Boulding, Emergence and the Centrality of “The Image” 825.6 The Influence of General Systems Theory 855.7 Conclusion 866 Cybernetics 896.1 Introduction 896.2 First‐Order Cybernetics 916.3 British Cybernetics 956.4 Second‐Order Cybernetics 1026.5 Conclusion 1087 Complexity Theory 1117.1 Introduction 1117.2 Chaos Theory 1127.3 Dissipative Structures 1177.4 Complex Adaptive Systems 1197.5 Complexity Theory and Management 1257.6 Complexity Theory and Systems Thinking 1367.7 Conclusion 144Part III Systems Practice 1478 A System of Systems Methodologies 1518.1 Introduction 1518.2 Critical or “Second‐Order” Systems Thinking 1528.3 Toward a System of Systems Methodologies 1558.3.1 Preliminary Considerations 1558.3.2 Beer’s Classification of Systems 1558.3.3 The Original “System of Systems Methodologies” 1578.3.4 Snowden’s Cynefin Framework 1608.3.5 A Revised “System of Systems Methodologies” 1628.4 The Development of Applied Systems Thinking 1668.5 Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity 1698.6 Conclusion 169Type A Systems Approaches for Technical Complexity 1719 Operational Research, Systems Analysis, Systems Engineering (Hard Systems Thinking) 1739.1 Prologue 1739.2 Description of Hard Systems Thinking 1759.2.1 Historical Development 1759.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 1779.2.3 Methodology 1799.2.4 Methods 1829.2.5 Developments in Hard Systems Thinking 1849.3 Hard Systems Thinking in Action 1889.4 Critique of Hard Systems Thinking 1919.5 Comments 1969.6 The Value of Hard Systems Thinking to Managers 1979.7 Conclusion 197Type B Systems Approaches for Process Complexity 19910 The Vanguard Method 20110.1 Prologue 20110.2 Description of the Vanguard Method 20310.2.1 Historical Development 20310.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 20610.2.3 Methodology 20910.2.4 Methods 21110.3 The Vanguard Method in Action 21210.3.1 Check 21310.3.2 Plan 21510.3.3 Do 21610.4 Critique of the Vanguard Method 22010.5 Comments 22410.6 The Value of the Vanguard Method to Managers 22510.7 Conclusion 226Type C Systems Approaches for Structural Complexity 22711 System Dynamics 22911.1 Prologue 22911.2 Description of System Dynamics 23111.2.1 Historical Development 23111.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 23311.2.3 Methodology 24111.2.4 Methods 24411.3 System Dynamics in Action 24711.4 Critique of System Dynamics 24911.5 Comments 25811.6 The Value of System Dynamics to Managers 25811.7 Conclusion 259Type D Systems Approaches for Organizational Complexity 26112 Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking 26312.1 Prologue 26312.2 Description of Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking 26412.2.1 Historical Development 26412.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 26812.2.3 Methodology 27612.2.4 Methods 27912.3 Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking in Action 28012.4 Critique of Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking 28112.5 Comments 28812.6 The Value of Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking to Managers 28912.7 Conclusion 28913 Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 29113.1 Prologue 29113.2 Description of Organizational Cybernetics 29613.2.1 Historical Development 29613.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 29913.2.3 Methodology 31113.2.4 Methods 31713.3 Organizational Cybernetics in Action 32013.4 Critique of Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 32513.5 Comments 33713.6 The Value of Organizational Cybernetics to Managers 33913.7 Conclusion 340Type E Systems Approaches for People Complexity 34114 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 34314.1 Prologue 34314.2 Description of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 34614.2.1 Historical Development 34614.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 34814.2.3 Methodology 35314.2.4 Methods 35514.3 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing in Action 35714.4 Critique of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 36014.5 Comments 36514.6 The Value of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing to Managers 36614.7 Conclusion 36715 Interactive Planning 36915.1 Prologue 36915.2 Description of Interactive Planning 37115.2.1 Historical Development 37115.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 37515.2.3 Methodology 37915.2.4 Methods 38215.3 Interactive Planning in Action 38415.4 Critique of Interactive Planning 38815.5 Comments 39415.6 The Value of Interactive Planning to Managers 39515.7 Conclusion 39516 Soft Systems Methodology 39716.1 Prologue 39716.2 Description of Soft Systems Methodology 40116.2.1 Historical Development 40116.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 40416.2.3 Methodology 41116.2.4 Methods 42016.3 Soft Systems Methodology in Action 42716.4 Critique of Soft Systems Methodology 43116.5 Comments 44116.6 The Value of Soft Systems Methodology to Managers 44216.7 Conclusion 443Type F Systems Approaches for Coercive Complexity 44517 Team Syntegrity 44717.1 Prologue 44717.2 Description of Team Syntegrity 44917.2.1 Historical Development 44917.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 45017.2.3 Methodology 45517.2.4 Methods 45817.3 Team Syntegrity in Action 45917.4 Critique of Team Syntegrity 46217.5 Comments 46817.6 The Value of Team Syntegrity to Managers 47017.7 Conclusion 47018 Critical Systems Heuristics 47118.1 Prologue 47118.2 Description of Critical Systems Heuristics 47318.2.1 Historical Development 47318.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 47618.2.3 Methodology 47918.2.4 Methods 48418.3 Critical Systems Heuristics in Action 48518.4 Critique of Critical Systems Heuristics 49018.5 Comments 50218.6 The Value of Critical Systems Heuristics to Managers 50818.7 Conclusion 509Part IV Critical Systems Thinking 51119 Critical Systems Theory 51519.1 Introduction 51519.2 The Origins of Critical Systems Theory 51619.2.1 Critical Awareness 51719.2.2 Pluralism 51919.2.3 Emancipation or Improvement 52219.3 Critical Systems Theory and the Management Sciences 52419.4 Conclusion 52820 Critical Systems Thinking and Multimethodology 53120.1 Introduction 53120.2 Total Systems Intervention 54020.2.1 Background 54020.2.2 Multimethodology 54120.2.3 Case Study 54520.2.4 Critique 55320.3 Systemic Intervention 55820.3.1 Background 55820.3.2 Multimethodology 55920.3.3 Case Study 56220.3.4 Critique 56520.4 Critical Realism and Multimethodology 56820.4.1 Background 56820.4.2 Multimethodology 57020.4.3 Case Study 57220.4.4 Critique 57220.5 Conclusion 57621 Critical Systems Practice 57721.1 Prologue 57721.2 Description of Critical Systems Practice 57921.2.1 Historical Development 57921.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 58121.2.3 Multimethodology 59321.2.4 Methodologies 60121.2.5 Methods 60421.3 Critical Systems Practice in Action 60721.3.1 North Yorkshire Police 60721.3.2 Kingston Gas Turbines 61721.3.3 Hull University Business School 62121.4 Critique of Critical Systems Practice 63221.5 Comments 63721.6 The Value of Critical Systems Practice to Managers 63821.7 Conclusion 638Conclusion 641References 645Index 679

MICHAEL C. JACKSON is Emeritus Professor at the University of Hull, editor- in-chief of Systems Research and Behavioral Science, and MD of Systems Research Ltd. He graduated from Oxford University, gained an MA from Lancaster University and a PhD from Hull, and has worked in the civil service, in academia and as a consultant. Between 1999 and 2011, Mike was Dean of Hull University Business School, leading it to triple-crown accreditation. Mike has been President of the International Federation for Systems Research and the International Society for the Systems Sciences. He is a Companion of the Association of Business Schools, a Chartered IT Professional, and a Fellow of the British Computer Society, the Cybernetics Society, the Chartered Management Institute, the Operational Research Society and the International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences. Mike has received many awards, two honorary degrees, and has been a visiting professor at numerous international universities. In 2011 he was awarded an OBE for services to higher education and business. In 2017 he received the Beale Medal of the UK Operational Research Society for 'a sustained contribution over many years to the theory, practice, or philosophy of Operational Research.' The previous version of this book Systems Thinking: Creative Holism for Managers was translated into four languages.

• Preface xviiIntroduction xxvPart I Systems Thinking in the Disciplines 11 Philosophy 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Kant 41.3 Hegel 81.4 Pragmatism 91.5 Husserl and Phenomenology 101.6 Radical Constructivism 111.7 Conclusion 122 The Physical Sciences and the Scientific Method 152.1 Introduction 152.2 The Scientific Method and the Scientific Revolution 162.3 The Physical Sciences in the Modern Era 192.4 The Scientific Method in the Modern Era 212.5 Extending the Scientific Method to Other Disciplines 242.6 Conclusion 253 The Life Sciences 273.1 Introduction 273.2 Biology 273.3 Ecology 353.4 Conclusion 404 The Social Sciences 434.1 Introduction 434.2 Functionalism 444.3 Interpretive Social Theory 494.4 The Sociology of Radical Change 524.5 Postmodernism and Poststructuralism 564.6 Integrationist Social Theory 594.7 Luhmann’s Social Systems Theory 624.8 Action Research 674.9 Conclusion 68Part II The Systems Sciences 715 General Systems Theory 755.1 Introduction 755.2 von Bertalanffy and General System Theory 755.3 von Bertalanffy’s Collaborators and the Society for General Systems Research 795.4 Miller and the Search for Isomorphisms at Different System Levels 805.5 Boulding, Emergence and the Centrality of “The Image” 825.6 The Influence of General Systems Theory 855.7 Conclusion 866 Cybernetics 896.1 Introduction 896.2 First‐Order Cybernetics 916.3 British Cybernetics 956.4 Second‐Order Cybernetics 1026.5 Conclusion 1087 Complexity Theory 1117.1 Introduction 1117.2 Chaos Theory 1127.3 Dissipative Structures 1177.4 Complex Adaptive Systems 1197.5 Complexity Theory and Management 1257.6 Complexity Theory and Systems Thinking 1367.7 Conclusion 144Part III Systems Practice 1478 A System of Systems Methodologies 1518.1 Introduction 1518.2 Critical or “Second‐Order” Systems Thinking 1528.3 Toward a System of Systems Methodologies 1558.3.1 Preliminary Considerations 1558.3.2 Beer’s Classification of Systems 1558.3.3 The Original “System of Systems Methodologies” 1578.3.4 Snowden’s Cynefin Framework 1608.3.5 A Revised “System of Systems Methodologies” 1628.4 The Development of Applied Systems Thinking 1668.5 Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity 1698.6 Conclusion 169Type A Systems Approaches for Technical Complexity 1719 Operational Research, Systems Analysis, Systems Engineering (Hard Systems Thinking) 1739.1 Prologue 1739.2 Description of Hard Systems Thinking 1759.2.1 Historical Development 1759.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 1779.2.3 Methodology 1799.2.4 Methods 1829.2.5 Developments in Hard Systems Thinking 1849.3 Hard Systems Thinking in Action 1889.4 Critique of Hard Systems Thinking 1919.5 Comments 1969.6 The Value of Hard Systems Thinking to Managers 1979.7 Conclusion 197Type B Systems Approaches for Process Complexity 19910 The Vanguard Method 20110.1 Prologue 20110.2 Description of the Vanguard Method 20310.2.1 Historical Development 20310.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 20610.2.3 Methodology 20910.2.4 Methods 21110.3 The Vanguard Method in Action 21210.3.1 Check 21310.3.2 Plan 21510.3.3 Do 21610.4 Critique of the Vanguard Method 22010.5 Comments 22410.6 The Value of the Vanguard Method to Managers 22510.7 Conclusion 226Type C Systems Approaches for Structural Complexity 22711 System Dynamics 22911.1 Prologue 22911.2 Description of System Dynamics 23111.2.1 Historical Development 23111.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 23311.2.3 Methodology 24111.2.4 Methods 24411.3 System Dynamics in Action 24711.4 Critique of System Dynamics 24911.5 Comments 25811.6 The Value of System Dynamics to Managers 25811.7 Conclusion 259Type D Systems Approaches for Organizational Complexity 26112 Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking 26312.1 Prologue 26312.2 Description of Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking 26412.2.1 Historical Development 26412.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 26812.2.3 Methodology 27612.2.4 Methods 27912.3 Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking in Action 28012.4 Critique of Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking 28112.5 Comments 28812.6 The Value of Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking to Managers 28912.7 Conclusion 28913 Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 29113.1 Prologue 29113.2 Description of Organizational Cybernetics 29613.2.1 Historical Development 29613.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 29913.2.3 Methodology 31113.2.4 Methods 31713.3 Organizational Cybernetics in Action 32013.4 Critique of Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 32513.5 Comments 33713.6 The Value of Organizational Cybernetics to Managers 33913.7 Conclusion 340Type E Systems Approaches for People Complexity 34114 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 34314.1 Prologue 34314.2 Description of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 34614.2.1 Historical Development 34614.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 34814.2.3 Methodology 35314.2.4 Methods 35514.3 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing in Action 35714.4 Critique of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 36014.5 Comments 36514.6 The Value of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing to Managers 36614.7 Conclusion 36715 Interactive Planning 36915.1 Prologue 36915.2 Description of Interactive Planning 37115.2.1 Historical Development 37115.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 37515.2.3 Methodology 37915.2.4 Methods 38215.3 Interactive Planning in Action 38415.4 Critique of Interactive Planning 38815.5 Comments 39415.6 The Value of Interactive Planning to Managers 39515.7 Conclusion 39516 Soft Systems Methodology 39716.1 Prologue 39716.2 Description of Soft Systems Methodology 40116.2.1 Historical Development 40116.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 40416.2.3 Methodology 41116.2.4 Methods 42016.3 Soft Systems Methodology in Action 42716.4 Critique of Soft Systems Methodology 43116.5 Comments 44116.6 The Value of Soft Systems Methodology to Managers 44216.7 Conclusion 443Type F Systems Approaches for Coercive Complexity 44517 Team Syntegrity 44717.1 Prologue 44717.2 Description of Team Syntegrity 44917.2.1 Historical Development 44917.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 45017.2.3 Methodology 45517.2.4 Methods 45817.3 Team Syntegrity in Action 45917.4 Critique of Team Syntegrity 46217.5 Comments 46817.6 The Value of Team Syntegrity to Managers 47017.7 Conclusion 47018 Critical Systems Heuristics 47118.1 Prologue 47118.2 Description of Critical Systems Heuristics 47318.2.1 Historical Development 47318.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 47618.2.3 Methodology 47918.2.4 Methods 48418.3 Critical Systems Heuristics in Action 48518.4 Critique of Critical Systems Heuristics 49018.5 Comments 50218.6 The Value of Critical Systems Heuristics to Managers 50818.7 Conclusion 509Part IV Critical Systems Thinking 51119 Critical Systems Theory 51519.1 Introduction 51519.2 The Origins of Critical Systems Theory 51619.2.1 Critical Awareness 51719.2.2 Pluralism 51919.2.3 Emancipation or Improvement 52219.3 Critical Systems Theory and the Management Sciences 52419.4 Conclusion 52820 Critical Systems Thinking and Multimethodology 53120.1 Introduction 53120.2 Total Systems Intervention 54020.2.1 Background 54020.2.2 Multimethodology 54120.2.3 Case Study 54520.2.4 Critique 55320.3 Systemic Intervention 55820.3.1 Background 55820.3.2 Multimethodology 55920.3.3 Case Study 56220.3.4 Critique 56520.4 Critical Realism and Multimethodology 56820.4.1 Background 56820.4.2 Multimethodology 57020.4.3 Case Study 57220.4.4 Critique 57220.5 Conclusion 57621 Critical Systems Practice 57721.1 Prologue 57721.2 Description of Critical Systems Practice 57921.2.1 Historical Development 57921.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 58121.2.3 Multimethodology 59321.2.4 Methodologies 60121.2.5 Methods 60421.3 Critical Systems Practice in Action 60721.3.1 North Yorkshire Police 60721.3.2 Kingston Gas Turbines 61721.3.3 Hull University Business School 62121.4 Critique of Critical Systems Practice 63221.5 Comments 63721.6 The Value of Critical Systems Practice to Managers 63821.7 Conclusion 638Conclusion 641References 645Index 679

MICHAEL C. JACKSON is Emeritus Professor at the University of Hull, editor- in-chief of Systems Research and Behavioral Science, and MD of Systems Research Ltd. He graduated from Oxford University, gained an MA from Lancaster University and a PhD from Hull, and has worked in the civil service, in academia and as a consultant. Between 1999 and 2011, Mike was Dean of Hull University Business School, leading it to triple-crown accreditation. Mike has been President of the International Federation for Systems Research and the International Society for the Systems Sciences. He is a Companion of the Association of Business Schools, a Chartered IT Professional, and a Fellow of the British Computer Society, the Cybernetics Society, the Chartered Management Institute, the Operational Research Society and the International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences. Mike has received many awards, two honorary degrees, and has been a visiting professor at numerous international universities. In 2011 he was awarded an OBE for services to higher education and business. In 2017 he received the Beale Medal of the UK Operational Research Society for 'a sustained contribution over many years to the theory, practice, or philosophy of Operational Research.' The previous version of this book Systems Thinking: Creative Holism for Managers was translated into four languages.

• Preface xviiIntroduction xxvPart I Systems Thinking in the Disciplines 11 Philosophy 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Kant 41.3 Hegel 81.4 Pragmatism 91.5 Husserl and Phenomenology 101.6 Radical Constructivism 111.7 Conclusion 122 The Physical Sciences and the Scientific Method 152.1 Introduction 152.2 The Scientific Method and the Scientific Revolution 162.3 The Physical Sciences in the Modern Era 192.4 The Scientific Method in the Modern Era 212.5 Extending the Scientific Method to Other Disciplines 242.6 Conclusion 253 The Life Sciences 273.1 Introduction 273.2 Biology 273.3 Ecology 353.4 Conclusion 404 The Social Sciences 434.1 Introduction 434.2 Functionalism 444.3 Interpretive Social Theory 494.4 The Sociology of Radical Change 524.5 Postmodernism and Poststructuralism 564.6 Integrationist Social Theory 594.7 Luhmann’s Social Systems Theory 624.8 Action Research 674.9 Conclusion 68Part II The Systems Sciences 715 General Systems Theory 755.1 Introduction 755.2 von Bertalanffy and General System Theory 755.3 von Bertalanffy’s Collaborators and the Society for General Systems Research 795.4 Miller and the Search for Isomorphisms at Different System Levels 805.5 Boulding, Emergence and the Centrality of “The Image” 825.6 The Influence of General Systems Theory 855.7 Conclusion 866 Cybernetics 896.1 Introduction 896.2 First‐Order Cybernetics 916.3 British Cybernetics 956.4 Second‐Order Cybernetics 1026.5 Conclusion 1087 Complexity Theory 1117.1 Introduction 1117.2 Chaos Theory 1127.3 Dissipative Structures 1177.4 Complex Adaptive Systems 1197.5 Complexity Theory and Management 1257.6 Complexity Theory and Systems Thinking 1367.7 Conclusion 144Part III Systems Practice 1478 A System of Systems Methodologies 1518.1 Introduction 1518.2 Critical or “Second‐Order” Systems Thinking 1528.3 Toward a System of Systems Methodologies 1558.3.1 Preliminary Considerations 1558.3.2 Beer’s Classification of Systems 1558.3.3 The Original “System of Systems Methodologies” 1578.3.4 Snowden’s Cynefin Framework 1608.3.5 A Revised “System of Systems Methodologies” 1628.4 The Development of Applied Systems Thinking 1668.5 Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity 1698.6 Conclusion 169Type A Systems Approaches for Technical Complexity 1719 Operational Research, Systems Analysis, Systems Engineering (Hard Systems Thinking) 1739.1 Prologue 1739.2 Description of Hard Systems Thinking 1759.2.1 Historical Development 1759.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 1779.2.3 Methodology 1799.2.4 Methods 1829.2.5 Developments in Hard Systems Thinking 1849.3 Hard Systems Thinking in Action 1889.4 Critique of Hard Systems Thinking 1919.5 Comments 1969.6 The Value of Hard Systems Thinking to Managers 1979.7 Conclusion 197Type B Systems Approaches for Process Complexity 19910 The Vanguard Method 20110.1 Prologue 20110.2 Description of the Vanguard Method 20310.2.1 Historical Development 20310.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 20610.2.3 Methodology 20910.2.4 Methods 21110.3 The Vanguard Method in Action 21210.3.1 Check 21310.3.2 Plan 21510.3.3 Do 21610.4 Critique of the Vanguard Method 22010.5 Comments 22410.6 The Value of the Vanguard Method to Managers 22510.7 Conclusion 226Type C Systems Approaches for Structural Complexity 22711 System Dynamics 22911.1 Prologue 22911.2 Description of System Dynamics 23111.2.1 Historical Development 23111.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 23311.2.3 Methodology 24111.2.4 Methods 24411.3 System Dynamics in Action 24711.4 Critique of System Dynamics 24911.5 Comments 25811.6 The Value of System Dynamics to Managers 25811.7 Conclusion 259Type D Systems Approaches for Organizational Complexity 26112 Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking 26312.1 Prologue 26312.2 Description of Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking 26412.2.1 Historical Development 26412.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 26812.2.3 Methodology 27612.2.4 Methods 27912.3 Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking in Action 28012.4 Critique of Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking 28112.5 Comments 28812.6 The Value of Socio‐Technical Systems Thinking to Managers 28912.7 Conclusion 28913 Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 29113.1 Prologue 29113.2 Description of Organizational Cybernetics 29613.2.1 Historical Development 29613.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 29913.2.3 Methodology 31113.2.4 Methods 31713.3 Organizational Cybernetics in Action 32013.4 Critique of Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 32513.5 Comments 33713.6 The Value of Organizational Cybernetics to Managers 33913.7 Conclusion 340Type E Systems Approaches for People Complexity 34114 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 34314.1 Prologue 34314.2 Description of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 34614.2.1 Historical Development 34614.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 34814.2.3 Methodology 35314.2.4 Methods 35514.3 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing in Action 35714.4 Critique of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 36014.5 Comments 36514.6 The Value of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing to Managers 36614.7 Conclusion 36715 Interactive Planning 36915.1 Prologue 36915.2 Description of Interactive Planning 37115.2.1 Historical Development 37115.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 37515.2.3 Methodology 37915.2.4 Methods 38215.3 Interactive Planning in Action 38415.4 Critique of Interactive Planning 38815.5 Comments 39415.6 The Value of Interactive Planning to Managers 39515.7 Conclusion 39516 Soft Systems Methodology 39716.1 Prologue 39716.2 Description of Soft Systems Methodology 40116.2.1 Historical Development 40116.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 40416.2.3 Methodology 41116.2.4 Methods 42016.3 Soft Systems Methodology in Action 42716.4 Critique of Soft Systems Methodology 43116.5 Comments 44116.6 The Value of Soft Systems Methodology to Managers 44216.7 Conclusion 443Type F Systems Approaches for Coercive Complexity 44517 Team Syntegrity 44717.1 Prologue 44717.2 Description of Team Syntegrity 44917.2.1 Historical Development 44917.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 45017.2.3 Methodology 45517.2.4 Methods 45817.3 Team Syntegrity in Action 45917.4 Critique of Team Syntegrity 46217.5 Comments 46817.6 The Value of Team Syntegrity to Managers 47017.7 Conclusion 47018 Critical Systems Heuristics 47118.1 Prologue 47118.2 Description of Critical Systems Heuristics 47318.2.1 Historical Development 47318.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 47618.2.3 Methodology 47918.2.4 Methods 48418.3 Critical Systems Heuristics in Action 48518.4 Critique of Critical Systems Heuristics 49018.5 Comments 50218.6 The Value of Critical Systems Heuristics to Managers 50818.7 Conclusion 509Part IV Critical Systems Thinking 51119 Critical Systems Theory 51519.1 Introduction 51519.2 The Origins of Critical Systems Theory 51619.2.1 Critical Awareness 51719.2.2 Pluralism 51919.2.3 Emancipation or Improvement 52219.3 Critical Systems Theory and the Management Sciences 52419.4 Conclusion 52820 Critical Systems Thinking and Multimethodology 53120.1 Introduction 53120.2 Total Systems Intervention 54020.2.1 Background 54020.2.2 Multimethodology 54120.2.3 Case Study 54520.2.4 Critique 55320.3 Systemic Intervention 55820.3.1 Background 55820.3.2 Multimethodology 55920.3.3 Case Study 56220.3.4 Critique 56520.4 Critical Realism and Multimethodology 56820.4.1 Background 56820.4.2 Multimethodology 57020.4.3 Case Study 57220.4.4 Critique 57220.5 Conclusion 57621 Critical Systems Practice 57721.1 Prologue 57721.2 Description of Critical Systems Practice 57921.2.1 Historical Development 57921.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 58121.2.3 Multimethodology 59321.2.4 Methodologies 60121.2.5 Methods 60421.3 Critical Systems Practice in Action 60721.3.1 North Yorkshire Police 60721.3.2 Kingston Gas Turbines 61721.3.3 Hull University Business School 62121.4 Critique of Critical Systems Practice 63221.5 Comments 63721.6 The Value of Critical Systems Practice to Managers 63821.7 Conclusion 638Conclusion 641References 645Index 679