Felix A. Farret, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Processing Energy, at the Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. He is the Coordinator of the Center of Excellence in Energy and Power Systems (CEESP) at Federal University of Santa Maria. He has been involved with R&D for industrial electronics and alternative energy sources for more than four decades. M. Godoy Simões, PhD, IEEE Fellow, is a Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at Colorado School of Mines. Dr. Sim??es pioneered the application of neural networks and fuzzy logic in power electronics, motor drives and renewable energy systems.

• Foreword for the First Edition xixForeword for the Second Edition xxiPreface for the First Edition xxiiiPreface for the Second Edition xxviiAcknowledgements xxxi1 Alternative Sources of Energy 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Renewable Sources of Energy 21.3 Renewable Energy versus Alternative Energy 41.4 Planning and Development of Integrated Energy 101.4.1 Grid]Supplied Electricity 101.4.2 Load 111.4.3 Distributed Generation 121.5 Renewable Energy Economics 131.5.1 Calculation of Electricity Generation Costs 141.5.1.1 Existing Plants 141.5.1.2 New Plants 151.5.1.3 Investment Costs 151.5.1.4 Capital Recovery Factor 161.6 European Targets for Renewable Powers 161.6.1 Demand]Side Management Options 171.6.2 Supply]Side Management Options 191.7 Integrating Renewable Energy Sources 211.7.1 Integration of Renewable Energy in the United States 231.7.2 Energy Recovery Time 241.7.3 Sustainability 261.8 Modern Electronic Controls for Power Systems 291.9 Issues Related to Alternative Sources of Energy 31References 352 Principles of Thermodynamics 372.1 Introduction 372.2 State of a Thermodynamic System 382.2.1 Heating Value 462.2.2 First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics and Thermal Efficiency 482.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles 492.3.1 Example of Efficiency in a Power Plant 512.3.2 Practical Problems Associated with Carnot Cycle Plant 542.3.3 Rankine Cycle for Power Plants 552.3.4 Brayton Cycle for Power Plants 582.3.5 Geothermal Energy 602.3.6 Kalina Cycle 612.3.7 Energy, Power, and System Balance 622.4 Examples of Energy Balance 662.4.1 Simple Residential Energy Balance 662.4.2 Refrigerator Energy Balance 672.4.3 Energy Balance for a Water Heater 682.4.4 Rock Bed Energy Balance 702.4.5 Array of Solar Collectors 702.4.6 Heat Pump 712.4.7 Heat Transfer Analysis 722.4.8 Simple Steam Power Turbine Analysis 732.5 Planet Earth: A Closed But Not Isolated System 77References 793 Hydroelectric Power Plants 813.1 Introduction 813.2 Determination of the Available Power 823.3 Expedient Topographical and Hydrological Measurements 843.3.1 Simple Measurement of Elevation 843.3.2 Global Positioning Systems for Elevation Measurement 853.3.3 Pipe Losses 863.3.4 Expedient Measurements of Stream Water Flow 873.3.4.1 Measurement Using a Float 873.3.4.2 Measurement Using a Rectangular Spillway 883.3.4.3 Measurement Using a Triangular Spillway 893.3.4.4 Measurement Based on the Dilution of Salt in the Water 893.3.5 Civil Works 923.4 Hydropower Generator Set 933.4.1 Regulation Systems 933.4.2 Butterfly Valves 933.5 Waterwheels 933.6 Turbines 963.6.1 Pelton Turbine 973.6.2 Francis Turbine 993.6.3 Michell–Banki Turbine 1023.6.4 Kaplan or Hydraulic Propeller Turbine 1033.6.5 Deriaz Turbines 1053.6.6 Water Pumps Working as Turbines 1063.6.7 Specification of Hydro Turbines 107References 1094 Wind Power Plants 1114.1 Introduction 1114.2 Appropriate Location 1124.2.1 Evaluation of Wind Intensity 1124.2.1.1 Meteorological Mapping 1164.2.1.2 Weibull Probability Distribution 1184.2.1.3 Analysis of Wind Speed by Visualization 1214.2.1.4 Technique of the Balloon 1234.2.2 Topography 1244.2.3 Purpose of the Energy Generated 1244.2.4 Accessibility 1244.3 Wind Power 1254.3.1 Wind Power Corrections 1264.3.2 Wind Distribution 1284.4 General Classification of Wind Turbines 1294.4.1 Rotor Turbines 1314.4.2 Multiple]Blade Turbines 1314.4.3 Drag Turbines (Savonius) 1324.4.4 Lifting Turbines 1334.4.4.1 Starting System 1344.4.4.2 Rotor 1344.4.4.3 Lifting 1344.4.4.4 Speed Multipliers 1344.4.4.5 Braking System 1354.4.4.6 Generation System 1354.4.4.7 Horizontal] and Vertical]Axis Turbines 1354.4.5 Magnus Turbines 1364.4.6 System TARP–WARP 1364.4.7 Accessories 1394.5 Generators and Speed Control Used in Wind Power Energy 1404.6 Analysis of Small Generating Systems 1434.6.1 Maximization of Cp 145References 1485 Thermosolar Power Plants 1515.1 Introduction 1515.2 Water Heating by Solar Energy 1525.3 Heat Transfer Calculation of Thermally Isolated Reservoirs 1555.3.1 Steady]State Thermal Calculations 1555.3.2 Transient]State Thermal Calculations 1565.3.3 Practical Approximate Measurements of the Thermal Constants R and C in Water Reservoirs 1585.4 Heating Domestic Water 1595.5 Thermosolar Energy 1605.5.1 Parabolic Trough 1615.5.2 Parabolic Dish 1635.5.3 Solar Power Tower 1645.5.4 Production of Hydrogen 1665.6 Economics Analysis of Thermosolar Energy 168References 1706 Photovoltaic Power Plants 1736.1 Introduction 1736.2 Solar Energy 1746.3 Conversion of Electricity by Photovoltaic Effect 1766.3.1 Photovoltaic Cells 1776.4 Equivalent Models for Photovoltaic Panels 1786.4.1 Dark]Current Electric Parameters of a Photovoltaic Panel 1796.4.1.1 Measurement of Iλ 1806.4.1.2 Measurement of Rp 1806.4.1.3 Measurement of Id 1816.4.1.4 Measurement of η 1826.4.1.5 Measurement of Is 1836.4.1.6 Measurement of Rs 1836.4.2 Power, Utilization, and Efficiency of a PV Cell 1836.5 Solar Cell Output Characteristics 1886.5.1 Dependence of a PV Cell Characteristic on Temperature and PV Cells 1906.5.2 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Series 1936.5.3 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Parallel 1956.6 Photovoltaic Systems 1966.6.1 Irradiance Area 1976.6.2 Solar Modules and Panels 1986.6.3 Aluminum Structures 1986.6.4 Load Controller 2006.6.5 Battery Bank 2006.6.6 Array Orientation 2006.7 Applications of Photovoltaic Solar Energy 2016.7.1 Residential and Public Illumination 2016.7.2 Stroboscopic Signaling 2026.7.3 Electric Fence 2036.7.4 Telecommunications 2036.7.5 Water Supply and Micro]irrigation Systems 2036.7.6 Control of Plagues and Conservation of Food and Medicine 2056.7.7 Hydrogen and Oxygen Generation by Electrolysis 2066.7.8 Electric Power Supply 2086.7.9 Security Video Cameras and Alarm Systems 2096.8 Economics and Analysis of Solar Energy 209References 2147 Power Plants with Fuel Cells 2177.1 Introduction 2177.2 The Fuel Cell 2187.3 Commercial Technologies for the Generation of Electricity 2207.4 Practical Issues Related to Fuel Cell Stacking 2317.4.1 Low] and High]Temperature Fuel Cells 2317.4.2 Commercial and Manufacturing Issues 2327.5 Constructional Features of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 2337.6 Constructional Features of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 2367.7 Reformers, Electrolyzer Systems, and Related Precautions 2377.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cells 2387.9 Fuel Cell Equivalent Circuit 2397.10 Water, Air, and Heat Management 2467.10.1 Fuel Cells and Their Thermal Energy Evaluation 2477.11 Experimental Evaluation of the Fuel Cell Equivalent Model Parameters 2507.11.1 Determination of FC Parameters 2537.12 Aspects of Hydrogen as Fuel 2567.13 Load Curve Peak Shaving with Fuel Cells 2587.13.1 Maximal Load Curve Flatness at Constant Output Power 2587.14 Future Trends 260References 2638 Biomass]Powered Microplants 2678.1 Introduction 2678.2 Fuel from Biomass 2728.3 Biogas 2748.4 Biomass for Biogas 2758.5 Biological Formation of Biogas 2778.6 Factors Affecting Biodigestion 2778.7 Characteristics of Biodigesters 2798.8 Construction of a Biodigester 2818.8.1 Typical Size for a Biodigester 2828.9 Generation of Electricity Using Biogas 282References2869 Microturbines 2899.1 Introduction 2899.2 Principles of Operation 2919.3 Microturbine Fuel 2939.4 Control of Microturbine 2949.4.1 Mechanical]Side Structure 2959.4.2 Electrical]Side Structure 2979.4.3 Control]Side Structure 2989.5 Efficiency and Power of Microturbines 3039.6 Site Assessment for Installation of Microturbines 305References 30710 Earth Core and Solar Heated Geothermal Energy Plants 31110.1 Introduction 31110.2 Earth Core Geothermal as a Source of Energy 31310.2.1 Earth Core Geothermal Economics 31410.2.2 Examples of Earth Core Geothermal Electricity 31610.3 Solar Heat Stored Underground as a Source of Energy 31710.3.1 Heat Exchange with Nature 31910.3.2 Heat Exchange with Surface Water 32210.3.3 Heat Exchange with Circulating Fluid 32210.4 Solar Geothermal Heat Exchangers 32310.4.1 Horizontal Serpentines 32410.4.2 Vertical Serpentines 32610.4.3 Mixed Serpentines 32610.4.4 Pressurized Serpentines Heat Pump 32610.5 Heat Exchange with a Room 328References 32911 Thermocouple, Sea Waves, Tide, MHD, and Piezoelectric Power Plants 33111.1 Introduction 33111.2 Thermocouple Electric Power Generation 33111.2.1 Thermocouples 33211.2.2 Power Conversion Using Thermocouples 33411.2.3 Principle of Semiconductor Thermocouples 33611.2.4 A Stack of Semiconductor Thermocouples 33811.2.5 A Plate of Semiconductor Thermocouples 33811.2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Semiconductor Thermocouples 33911.3 Power Plants with Ocean Waves 33911.3.1 Sea Wave Energy Extraction Technology 34111.3.2 Energy Content in Sea Waves 34411.4 Tide] Based Small Power Plants 34511.5 Small Central Magnetohydrodynamic 34711.6 Small Piezoelectric Power Plant 34911.6.1 Piezoelectric Energy Conversion 35011.6.2 Piezoelectric]Based Energy Applications 352References 35212 Induction Generators 35712.1 Introduction 35712.2 Principles of Operation 35812.3 Representation of Steady]State Operation 36012.4 Power and Losses Generated 36212.5 Self] Excited Induction Generator 36412.6 Magnetizing Curves and Self]Excitation 36812.7 Mathematical Description of the Self]Excitation Process 36912.8 Grid] Connected and Stand]Alone Operations 37212.9 Speed and Voltage Control 37412.9.1 Frequency, Speed, and Voltage Controls 37612.9.2 The Danish Concept: Two Generators on the Same Shaft 38312.9.3 Variable]Speed Grid Connection 38412.9.4 Control by the Load versus Control by the Source 38512.10 Economics Considerations 387References 38913 Permanent Magnet Generators 39313.1 Introduction 39313.1.1 PMSG Radial Flux Machines 39413.1.2 Axial Flux Machines 39413.1.3 Operating Principle of the PMSG 39513.2 Permanent Magnets Used for PMSGs 39713.3 Modeling a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine 39813.3.1 Simplified Model of a PMSG 40213.4 Core Types of a PMSG 40713.5 PSIM Simulation of the PMSG 40813.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the PMSG 408References 41114 Storage Systems 41314.1 Introduction 41314.2 Energy Storage Parameters 41614.3 Lead–Acid Batteries 41914.3.1 Constructional Features 42114.3.2 Battery Charge–Discharge Cycles 42214.3.3 Operating Limits and Parameters 42414.3.4 Maintenance of Lead–Acid Batteries 42614.3.5 Sizing Lead–Acid Batteries for DG Applications 42714.4 Ultracapacitors (Supercapacitors) 42914.4.1 Double]Layer Effect 43014.4.2 High]Energy Ultracapacitors 43214.4.3 Applications of Ultracapacitors 43314.5 Flywheels 43514.5.1 Advanced Performance of Flywheels 43614.5.2 Applications of Flywheels 43714.5.3 Design Strategies 43914.6 Superconducting Magnetic Storage System 44114.6.1 SMES System Capabilities 44314.6.2 Developments in SMES Systems 44414.7 Pumped Hydroelectric Storage 44614.7.1 Storage Capabilities of Pumped Systems 44714.8 Compressed Air Energy Storage 44914.9 Heat Storage 45114.10 Hydrogen Storage 45214.11 Energy Storage as an Economic Resource 453References 45715 Integration of Alternative Sources of Energy 46115.1 Introduction 46115.2 Principles of Power Interconnection 46215.2.1 Converting Technologies 46215.2.2 Power Converters for Power Injection into the Grid 46415.2.3 Power Flow 46615.3 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power Control Approach 47015.4 Integration of Multiple Renewable Energy Sources 47315.4.1 DC]Link Integration 47515.4.2 AC]Link Integration 47715.4.3 HFAC]Link Integration 47815.5 Islanding and Interconnection Control 48115.6 DG PLL with Clarke and Park Transformations 49015.6.1 Clarke Transformation for AC]Link Integration 49015.6.2 Blondel or Park Transformation for AC]Link Integration 49215.7 DG Control and Power Injection 494References 50016 Distributed Generation 50316.1 Introduction 50316.2 The Purpose of Distributed Generation 50616.2.1 Modularity 50716.2.2 Efficiency 50716.2.3 Low or No Emissions 50716.2.4 Security 50716.2.5 Load Management 50816.3 Sizing and Siting of Distributed Generation 51016.4 Demand]Side Management 51116.5 Optimal Location of Distributed Energy Sources 51216.5.1 DG Influence on Power and Energy Losses 51416.5.2 Estimation of DG Influence on Power Losses of Sub]transmission Systems 51816.5.3 Equivalent of Sub]transmission Systems Using Experimental Design 52116.6 Algorithm of Multicriterial Analysis 52316.6.1 Voltage Quality in DG Systems 525References 53017 Interconnection of Alternative Energy Sources with the Grid 533Benjamin Kroposki, Thomas Basso, Richard Deblasio, and N. Richard Friedman17.1 Introduction 53317.2 Interconnection Technologies 53617.2.1 Synchronous Interconnection 53617.2.2 Induction Interconnection 53717.2.3 Inverter Interconnection 53817.3 Standards and Codes for Interconnection 53917.3.1 IEEE 1547 53917.3.2 National Electrical Code 54017.3.2.1 NFPA 70: National Electrical Code 54017.3.2.2 NFPA 853: Standard for the Installation of Stationary Fuel Cell Power Plants 54117.3.3 UL Standards 54117.3.3.1 UL 1741: Inverters, Converters, and Controllers for Use in Independent Power Systems 54117.3.3.2 UL 1008: Transfer Switch Equipment 54117.3.3.3 UL 2200: Standard for Safety for Stationary Engine Generator Assemblies 54317.4 Interconnection Considerations 54317.4.1 Voltage Regulation 54317.4.2 Integration with Area EPS Grounding 54417.4.3 Synchronization 54417.4.4 Isolation 54517.4.5 Response to Voltage Disturbance 54517.4.6 Response to Frequency Disturbance 54617.4.7 Disconnection for Faults 54817.4.8 Loss of Synchronism 54917.4.9 Feeder Reclosing Coordination 54917.4.10 Dc Injection 55017.4.11 Voltage Flicker 55017.4.12 Harmonics 55117.4.13 Unintentional Islanding Protection 55317.5 Interconnection Examples for Alternative Energy Sources 55317.5.1 Synchronous Generator for Peak Demand Reduction 55517.5.2 Small Grid]Connected PV System 555References 55718 Micropower System Modeling with HOMER 559Tom Lambert, Paul Gilman, and Peter Lilienthal18.1 Introduction 55918.2 Simulation 56118.3 Optimization 56618.4 Sensitivity Analysis 56918.4.1 Dealing with Uncertainty 57018.4.2 Sensitivity Analyses on Hourly Data Sets 57318.5 Physical Modeling 57418.5.1 Loads 57418.5.1.1 Primary Load 57518.5.1.2 Deferrable Load 57518.5.1.3 Thermal Load 57618.5.2 Resources 57718.5.2.1 Solar Resource 57718.5.2.2 Wind Resource 57718.5.2.3 Hydro Resource 57818.5.2.4 Biomass Resource 57818.5.3 Components 57918.5.3.1 PV Array 58018.5.3.2 Wind Turbine 58118.5.3.3 Hydro Turbine 58218.5.3.4 Generators 58318.5.3.5 Battery Bank 58518.5.3.6 Grid 58918.5.3.7 Boiler 59118.5.3.8 Converter 59118.5.3.9 Electrolyzer 59218.5.3.10 Hydrogen Tank 59218.5.4 System Dispatch 59218.5.4.1 Operating Reserve 59318.5.4.2 Control of Dispatchable System Components 59418.5.4.3 Dispatch Strategy 59718.5.4.4 Load Priority 59818.6 Economic Modeling 598References 601Appendix A Diesel Power Plants 603A.1 Introduction 603A.2 TheDiesel Engine 604A.3 Main Components of a Diesel Engine 604A.3.1 Fixed Parts 605A.3.2 Moving Parts 605A.3.3 Auxiliary Systems 605A.4 Terminology of Diesel Engines 606A.4.1 The Diesel Cycle 606A.4.2 Combustion Process 608A.4.2.1 Four]Stroke Diesel Engine 609A.5 Cycle of the Diesel Engine 609A.5.1 Relative Diesel Engine Cycle Losses 610A.5.2 Classification of the Diesel Engine 610A.6 Types of Fuel Injection Pumps 611A.7 Electrical Conditions of Generators Driven by Diesel Engines 612References 614Appendix B The Stirling Engine 615B.1 Introduction 615B.2 The Stirling Cycle 616B.3 Displacer]Type Stirling Engine 619B.4 Two]Piston Stirling Engine 621References 623Index 625

Felix A. Farret, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Processing Energy, at the Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. He is the Coordinator of the Center of Excellence in Energy and Power Systems (CEESP) at Federal University of Santa Maria. He has been involved with R&D for industrial electronics and alternative energy sources for more than four decades. M. Godoy Simões, PhD, IEEE Fellow, is a Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at Colorado School of Mines. Dr. Sim??es pioneered the application of neural networks and fuzzy logic in power electronics, motor drives and renewable energy systems.

• Foreword for the First Edition xixForeword for the Second Edition xxiPreface for the First Edition xxiiiPreface for the Second Edition xxviiAcknowledgements xxxi1 Alternative Sources of Energy 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Renewable Sources of Energy 21.3 Renewable Energy versus Alternative Energy 41.4 Planning and Development of Integrated Energy 101.4.1 Grid]Supplied Electricity 101.4.2 Load 111.4.3 Distributed Generation 121.5 Renewable Energy Economics 131.5.1 Calculation of Electricity Generation Costs 141.5.1.1 Existing Plants 141.5.1.2 New Plants 151.5.1.3 Investment Costs 151.5.1.4 Capital Recovery Factor 161.6 European Targets for Renewable Powers 161.6.1 Demand]Side Management Options 171.6.2 Supply]Side Management Options 191.7 Integrating Renewable Energy Sources 211.7.1 Integration of Renewable Energy in the United States 231.7.2 Energy Recovery Time 241.7.3 Sustainability 261.8 Modern Electronic Controls for Power Systems 291.9 Issues Related to Alternative Sources of Energy 31References 352 Principles of Thermodynamics 372.1 Introduction 372.2 State of a Thermodynamic System 382.2.1 Heating Value 462.2.2 First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics and Thermal Efficiency 482.3 Fundamental Laws and Principles 492.3.1 Example of Efficiency in a Power Plant 512.3.2 Practical Problems Associated with Carnot Cycle Plant 542.3.3 Rankine Cycle for Power Plants 552.3.4 Brayton Cycle for Power Plants 582.3.5 Geothermal Energy 602.3.6 Kalina Cycle 612.3.7 Energy, Power, and System Balance 622.4 Examples of Energy Balance 662.4.1 Simple Residential Energy Balance 662.4.2 Refrigerator Energy Balance 672.4.3 Energy Balance for a Water Heater 682.4.4 Rock Bed Energy Balance 702.4.5 Array of Solar Collectors 702.4.6 Heat Pump 712.4.7 Heat Transfer Analysis 722.4.8 Simple Steam Power Turbine Analysis 732.5 Planet Earth: A Closed But Not Isolated System 77References 793 Hydroelectric Power Plants 813.1 Introduction 813.2 Determination of the Available Power 823.3 Expedient Topographical and Hydrological Measurements 843.3.1 Simple Measurement of Elevation 843.3.2 Global Positioning Systems for Elevation Measurement 853.3.3 Pipe Losses 863.3.4 Expedient Measurements of Stream Water Flow 873.3.4.1 Measurement Using a Float 873.3.4.2 Measurement Using a Rectangular Spillway 883.3.4.3 Measurement Using a Triangular Spillway 893.3.4.4 Measurement Based on the Dilution of Salt in the Water 893.3.5 Civil Works 923.4 Hydropower Generator Set 933.4.1 Regulation Systems 933.4.2 Butterfly Valves 933.5 Waterwheels 933.6 Turbines 963.6.1 Pelton Turbine 973.6.2 Francis Turbine 993.6.3 Michell–Banki Turbine 1023.6.4 Kaplan or Hydraulic Propeller Turbine 1033.6.5 Deriaz Turbines 1053.6.6 Water Pumps Working as Turbines 1063.6.7 Specification of Hydro Turbines 107References 1094 Wind Power Plants 1114.1 Introduction 1114.2 Appropriate Location 1124.2.1 Evaluation of Wind Intensity 1124.2.1.1 Meteorological Mapping 1164.2.1.2 Weibull Probability Distribution 1184.2.1.3 Analysis of Wind Speed by Visualization 1214.2.1.4 Technique of the Balloon 1234.2.2 Topography 1244.2.3 Purpose of the Energy Generated 1244.2.4 Accessibility 1244.3 Wind Power 1254.3.1 Wind Power Corrections 1264.3.2 Wind Distribution 1284.4 General Classification of Wind Turbines 1294.4.1 Rotor Turbines 1314.4.2 Multiple]Blade Turbines 1314.4.3 Drag Turbines (Savonius) 1324.4.4 Lifting Turbines 1334.4.4.1 Starting System 1344.4.4.2 Rotor 1344.4.4.3 Lifting 1344.4.4.4 Speed Multipliers 1344.4.4.5 Braking System 1354.4.4.6 Generation System 1354.4.4.7 Horizontal] and Vertical]Axis Turbines 1354.4.5 Magnus Turbines 1364.4.6 System TARP–WARP 1364.4.7 Accessories 1394.5 Generators and Speed Control Used in Wind Power Energy 1404.6 Analysis of Small Generating Systems 1434.6.1 Maximization of Cp 145References 1485 Thermosolar Power Plants 1515.1 Introduction 1515.2 Water Heating by Solar Energy 1525.3 Heat Transfer Calculation of Thermally Isolated Reservoirs 1555.3.1 Steady]State Thermal Calculations 1555.3.2 Transient]State Thermal Calculations 1565.3.3 Practical Approximate Measurements of the Thermal Constants R and C in Water Reservoirs 1585.4 Heating Domestic Water 1595.5 Thermosolar Energy 1605.5.1 Parabolic Trough 1615.5.2 Parabolic Dish 1635.5.3 Solar Power Tower 1645.5.4 Production of Hydrogen 1665.6 Economics Analysis of Thermosolar Energy 168References 1706 Photovoltaic Power Plants 1736.1 Introduction 1736.2 Solar Energy 1746.3 Conversion of Electricity by Photovoltaic Effect 1766.3.1 Photovoltaic Cells 1776.4 Equivalent Models for Photovoltaic Panels 1786.4.1 Dark]Current Electric Parameters of a Photovoltaic Panel 1796.4.1.1 Measurement of Iλ 1806.4.1.2 Measurement of Rp 1806.4.1.3 Measurement of Id 1816.4.1.4 Measurement of η 1826.4.1.5 Measurement of Is 1836.4.1.6 Measurement of Rs 1836.4.2 Power, Utilization, and Efficiency of a PV Cell 1836.5 Solar Cell Output Characteristics 1886.5.1 Dependence of a PV Cell Characteristic on Temperature and PV Cells 1906.5.2 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Series 1936.5.3 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Parallel 1956.6 Photovoltaic Systems 1966.6.1 Irradiance Area 1976.6.2 Solar Modules and Panels 1986.6.3 Aluminum Structures 1986.6.4 Load Controller 2006.6.5 Battery Bank 2006.6.6 Array Orientation 2006.7 Applications of Photovoltaic Solar Energy 2016.7.1 Residential and Public Illumination 2016.7.2 Stroboscopic Signaling 2026.7.3 Electric Fence 2036.7.4 Telecommunications 2036.7.5 Water Supply and Micro]irrigation Systems 2036.7.6 Control of Plagues and Conservation of Food and Medicine 2056.7.7 Hydrogen and Oxygen Generation by Electrolysis 2066.7.8 Electric Power Supply 2086.7.9 Security Video Cameras and Alarm Systems 2096.8 Economics and Analysis of Solar Energy 209References 2147 Power Plants with Fuel Cells 2177.1 Introduction 2177.2 The Fuel Cell 2187.3 Commercial Technologies for the Generation of Electricity 2207.4 Practical Issues Related to Fuel Cell Stacking 2317.4.1 Low] and High]Temperature Fuel Cells 2317.4.2 Commercial and Manufacturing Issues 2327.5 Constructional Features of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 2337.6 Constructional Features of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 2367.7 Reformers, Electrolyzer Systems, and Related Precautions 2377.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cells 2387.9 Fuel Cell Equivalent Circuit 2397.10 Water, Air, and Heat Management 2467.10.1 Fuel Cells and Their Thermal Energy Evaluation 2477.11 Experimental Evaluation of the Fuel Cell Equivalent Model Parameters 2507.11.1 Determination of FC Parameters 2537.12 Aspects of Hydrogen as Fuel 2567.13 Load Curve Peak Shaving with Fuel Cells 2587.13.1 Maximal Load Curve Flatness at Constant Output Power 2587.14 Future Trends 260References 2638 Biomass]Powered Microplants 2678.1 Introduction 2678.2 Fuel from Biomass 2728.3 Biogas 2748.4 Biomass for Biogas 2758.5 Biological Formation of Biogas 2778.6 Factors Affecting Biodigestion 2778.7 Characteristics of Biodigesters 2798.8 Construction of a Biodigester 2818.8.1 Typical Size for a Biodigester 2828.9 Generation of Electricity Using Biogas 282References2869 Microturbines 2899.1 Introduction 2899.2 Principles of Operation 2919.3 Microturbine Fuel 2939.4 Control of Microturbine 2949.4.1 Mechanical]Side Structure 2959.4.2 Electrical]Side Structure 2979.4.3 Control]Side Structure 2989.5 Efficiency and Power of Microturbines 3039.6 Site Assessment for Installation of Microturbines 305References 30710 Earth Core and Solar Heated Geothermal Energy Plants 31110.1 Introduction 31110.2 Earth Core Geothermal as a Source of Energy 31310.2.1 Earth Core Geothermal Economics 31410.2.2 Examples of Earth Core Geothermal Electricity 31610.3 Solar Heat Stored Underground as a Source of Energy 31710.3.1 Heat Exchange with Nature 31910.3.2 Heat Exchange with Surface Water 32210.3.3 Heat Exchange with Circulating Fluid 32210.4 Solar Geothermal Heat Exchangers 32310.4.1 Horizontal Serpentines 32410.4.2 Vertical Serpentines 32610.4.3 Mixed Serpentines 32610.4.4 Pressurized Serpentines Heat Pump 32610.5 Heat Exchange with a Room 328References 32911 Thermocouple, Sea Waves, Tide, MHD, and Piezoelectric Power Plants 33111.1 Introduction 33111.2 Thermocouple Electric Power Generation 33111.2.1 Thermocouples 33211.2.2 Power Conversion Using Thermocouples 33411.2.3 Principle of Semiconductor Thermocouples 33611.2.4 A Stack of Semiconductor Thermocouples 33811.2.5 A Plate of Semiconductor Thermocouples 33811.2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Semiconductor Thermocouples 33911.3 Power Plants with Ocean Waves 33911.3.1 Sea Wave Energy Extraction Technology 34111.3.2 Energy Content in Sea Waves 34411.4 Tide] Based Small Power Plants 34511.5 Small Central Magnetohydrodynamic 34711.6 Small Piezoelectric Power Plant 34911.6.1 Piezoelectric Energy Conversion 35011.6.2 Piezoelectric]Based Energy Applications 352References 35212 Induction Generators 35712.1 Introduction 35712.2 Principles of Operation 35812.3 Representation of Steady]State Operation 36012.4 Power and Losses Generated 36212.5 Self] Excited Induction Generator 36412.6 Magnetizing Curves and Self]Excitation 36812.7 Mathematical Description of the Self]Excitation Process 36912.8 Grid] Connected and Stand]Alone Operations 37212.9 Speed and Voltage Control 37412.9.1 Frequency, Speed, and Voltage Controls 37612.9.2 The Danish Concept: Two Generators on the Same Shaft 38312.9.3 Variable]Speed Grid Connection 38412.9.4 Control by the Load versus Control by the Source 38512.10 Economics Considerations 387References 38913 Permanent Magnet Generators 39313.1 Introduction 39313.1.1 PMSG Radial Flux Machines 39413.1.2 Axial Flux Machines 39413.1.3 Operating Principle of the PMSG 39513.2 Permanent Magnets Used for PMSGs 39713.3 Modeling a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine 39813.3.1 Simplified Model of a PMSG 40213.4 Core Types of a PMSG 40713.5 PSIM Simulation of the PMSG 40813.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the PMSG 408References 41114 Storage Systems 41314.1 Introduction 41314.2 Energy Storage Parameters 41614.3 Lead–Acid Batteries 41914.3.1 Constructional Features 42114.3.2 Battery Charge–Discharge Cycles 42214.3.3 Operating Limits and Parameters 42414.3.4 Maintenance of Lead–Acid Batteries 42614.3.5 Sizing Lead–Acid Batteries for DG Applications 42714.4 Ultracapacitors (Supercapacitors) 42914.4.1 Double]Layer Effect 43014.4.2 High]Energy Ultracapacitors 43214.4.3 Applications of Ultracapacitors 43314.5 Flywheels 43514.5.1 Advanced Performance of Flywheels 43614.5.2 Applications of Flywheels 43714.5.3 Design Strategies 43914.6 Superconducting Magnetic Storage System 44114.6.1 SMES System Capabilities 44314.6.2 Developments in SMES Systems 44414.7 Pumped Hydroelectric Storage 44614.7.1 Storage Capabilities of Pumped Systems 44714.8 Compressed Air Energy Storage 44914.9 Heat Storage 45114.10 Hydrogen Storage 45214.11 Energy Storage as an Economic Resource 453References 45715 Integration of Alternative Sources of Energy 46115.1 Introduction 46115.2 Principles of Power Interconnection 46215.2.1 Converting Technologies 46215.2.2 Power Converters for Power Injection into the Grid 46415.2.3 Power Flow 46615.3 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power Control Approach 47015.4 Integration of Multiple Renewable Energy Sources 47315.4.1 DC]Link Integration 47515.4.2 AC]Link Integration 47715.4.3 HFAC]Link Integration 47815.5 Islanding and Interconnection Control 48115.6 DG PLL with Clarke and Park Transformations 49015.6.1 Clarke Transformation for AC]Link Integration 49015.6.2 Blondel or Park Transformation for AC]Link Integration 49215.7 DG Control and Power Injection 494References 50016 Distributed Generation 50316.1 Introduction 50316.2 The Purpose of Distributed Generation 50616.2.1 Modularity 50716.2.2 Efficiency 50716.2.3 Low or No Emissions 50716.2.4 Security 50716.2.5 Load Management 50816.3 Sizing and Siting of Distributed Generation 51016.4 Demand]Side Management 51116.5 Optimal Location of Distributed Energy Sources 51216.5.1 DG Influence on Power and Energy Losses 51416.5.2 Estimation of DG Influence on Power Losses of Sub]transmission Systems 51816.5.3 Equivalent of Sub]transmission Systems Using Experimental Design 52116.6 Algorithm of Multicriterial Analysis 52316.6.1 Voltage Quality in DG Systems 525References 53017 Interconnection of Alternative Energy Sources with the Grid 533Benjamin Kroposki, Thomas Basso, Richard Deblasio, and N. Richard Friedman17.1 Introduction 53317.2 Interconnection Technologies 53617.2.1 Synchronous Interconnection 53617.2.2 Induction Interconnection 53717.2.3 Inverter Interconnection 53817.3 Standards and Codes for Interconnection 53917.3.1 IEEE 1547 53917.3.2 National Electrical Code 54017.3.2.1 NFPA 70: National Electrical Code 54017.3.2.2 NFPA 853: Standard for the Installation of Stationary Fuel Cell Power Plants 54117.3.3 UL Standards 54117.3.3.1 UL 1741: Inverters, Converters, and Controllers for Use in Independent Power Systems 54117.3.3.2 UL 1008: Transfer Switch Equipment 54117.3.3.3 UL 2200: Standard for Safety for Stationary Engine Generator Assemblies 54317.4 Interconnection Considerations 54317.4.1 Voltage Regulation 54317.4.2 Integration with Area EPS Grounding 54417.4.3 Synchronization 54417.4.4 Isolation 54517.4.5 Response to Voltage Disturbance 54517.4.6 Response to Frequency Disturbance 54617.4.7 Disconnection for Faults 54817.4.8 Loss of Synchronism 54917.4.9 Feeder Reclosing Coordination 54917.4.10 Dc Injection 55017.4.11 Voltage Flicker 55017.4.12 Harmonics 55117.4.13 Unintentional Islanding Protection 55317.5 Interconnection Examples for Alternative Energy Sources 55317.5.1 Synchronous Generator for Peak Demand Reduction 55517.5.2 Small Grid]Connected PV System 555References 55718 Micropower System Modeling with HOMER 559Tom Lambert, Paul Gilman, and Peter Lilienthal18.1 Introduction 55918.2 Simulation 56118.3 Optimization 56618.4 Sensitivity Analysis 56918.4.1 Dealing with Uncertainty 57018.4.2 Sensitivity Analyses on Hourly Data Sets 57318.5 Physical Modeling 57418.5.1 Loads 57418.5.1.1 Primary Load 57518.5.1.2 Deferrable Load 57518.5.1.3 Thermal Load 57618.5.2 Resources 57718.5.2.1 Solar Resource 57718.5.2.2 Wind Resource 57718.5.2.3 Hydro Resource 57818.5.2.4 Biomass Resource 57818.5.3 Components 57918.5.3.1 PV Array 58018.5.3.2 Wind Turbine 58118.5.3.3 Hydro Turbine 58218.5.3.4 Generators 58318.5.3.5 Battery Bank 58518.5.3.6 Grid 58918.5.3.7 Boiler 59118.5.3.8 Converter 59118.5.3.9 Electrolyzer 59218.5.3.10 Hydrogen Tank 59218.5.4 System Dispatch 59218.5.4.1 Operating Reserve 59318.5.4.2 Control of Dispatchable System Components 59418.5.4.3 Dispatch Strategy 59718.5.4.4 Load Priority 59818.6 Economic Modeling 598References 601Appendix A Diesel Power Plants 603A.1 Introduction 603A.2 TheDiesel Engine 604A.3 Main Components of a Diesel Engine 604A.3.1 Fixed Parts 605A.3.2 Moving Parts 605A.3.3 Auxiliary Systems 605A.4 Terminology of Diesel Engines 606A.4.1 The Diesel Cycle 606A.4.2 Combustion Process 608A.4.2.1 Four]Stroke Diesel Engine 609A.5 Cycle of the Diesel Engine 609A.5.1 Relative Diesel Engine Cycle Losses 610A.5.2 Classification of the Diesel Engine 610A.6 Types of Fuel Injection Pumps 611A.7 Electrical Conditions of Generators Driven by Diesel Engines 612References 614Appendix B The Stirling Engine 615B.1 Introduction 615B.2 The Stirling Cycle 616B.3 Displacer]Type Stirling Engine 619B.4 Two]Piston Stirling Engine 621References 623Index 625