Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals

The authors Anna Dee Fails, DVM, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Biomedical Sciences at Colorado State University in Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. Christianne Magee, DVM, PhD, Dip ACT, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Biomedical Sciences at Colorado State University in Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.

• Dedication xiiAbout the Companion Website xiiiChapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology 1Anatomical Nomenclature, Directional Terms, and Planes of Section 3Microscopic Anatomy: Animal Cells and Tissues 5Epithelial Tissues 6Connective Tissues 11Muscle Tissue 13Nervous Tissue 15The General Plan of the Animal Body 15Chapter 2: Anatomy and Physiology of the Cell 21Properties of Life 22Chemical Composition of the Cell 24Water 24Proteins 25Lipids 26Carbohydrates 28Inorganic Substances 29Acids, Bases, and pH 29Microscopic Study of the Cell 29Light Microscopy 30Electron Microscopy 32The Cell Membrane 33Structure of the Membrane 33Intercellular Contact and Adhesion 35Transport Across Cell Membranes 36Simple and Facilitated Diffusion 36Osmosis 38Active Transport 40Membrane Potentials and Excitable Cells 41Resting Membrane Potential 41Excitable Cells and Action Potentials 42Membrane Receptors and Intracellular Signaling 43Cytoplasm and Cytoplasmic Organelles 47Cytoplasm 47The Golgi Apparatus 47The Endoplasmic Reticulum and Ribosomes 47Mitochondria 47Lysosomes 48Other Structures 48Nucleus 49Structure of the Nucleus 49DNA and DNA Replication 50RNA: Transcription and Translation 51Biotechnology 53Cell Division 55Mitosis 55Meiosis 56Regulation of Cell Growth and Replication 57Chapter 3: Embryology 59Development of Germ Layers 60Principles of Differentiation 63Neurulation 63Mesodermal Differentiation 64Teratogenesis 66Chapter 4: The Skeletal System 69Functions of Bones 70Terminology 70Classification of Bones According to Gross Appearance 73Axial Skeleton 75Skull 75Vertebral Column 79Sternum and Ribs 82Appendicular Skeleton 83Thoracic Limbs 83Pelvic Limbs 87Chapter 5: Microscopic Anatomy and Growth and Development of Bone 91Microscopic Anatomy and Formation of Bone 92Ossification 94Endochondral (Intracartilaginous) Ossification 94Intramembranous Ossification 96Physiology of Bone 96Bone Mechanics and Remodeling 96Calcium of Bone 97Fractures and Fracture Healing 97Other Pathologic Conditions 99Chapter 6 Joints 101Classification of Joints 102Fibrous Joints 102Cartilaginous Joints 103Synovial Joints 103Other Synovial Structures 104Movements of Joints 104Types of Synovial Joints 106Joints of the Axial Skeleton 107Joints of the Appendicular Skeleton 108Joints of the Thoracic Limb 108Joints of the Pelvic Limb 111Pathology of Joints and Related Structures 117Chapter 7 Anatomy of the Muscular System 121Anatomical Nomenclature of Muscles 122Types of Muscle Tissue 122Skeletal Muscle Organization 122Muscle Attachments 123Functional Grouping of Muscles 124Synovial Structures 126Muscles of the Thoracic Limb 127Extrinsic Muscles of the Thoracic Limb 130Muscles Acting on the Shoulder Joint 131Muscles Acting on the Elbow 132Muscles Acting on the Distal Limb 133Muscles of the Pelvic Limb 135Muscles Acting on the Hip Joint 135Muscles Acting on the Stifle 141Muscles Acting on the Hock 142Muscles Acting on the Digit 142Muscles of the Head 143Muscles of Mastication 143Muscles of Facial Expression 144Other Muscles of the Head 144Muscles of the Trunk and Neck 145Extensors of the Vertebral Column 145Flexors of the Vertebral Column 150Abdominal Muscles 150Muscles of Respiration 151Chapter 8: The Equine Foot and Passive Stay Apparatus 153Structure of the Foot 154Bones and Cartilages 154Cornified Tissues 155Tendons 159Ligaments 160Synovial Structures 162Function 163Concussion and Storage of Energy 163Stay Apparatus 163Thoracic Limb 164Pelvic Limb 166Chapter 9: Microscopic Anatomy and Physiology of Muscle 171Skeletal Muscle 172Structure 172Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation 175Strength of Contraction 179Drugs That Affect Skeletal Muscle Function 181Types of Muscle Contraction 182Smooth Muscle 182Structure 183Stress–Relaxation 183Contraction and Relaxation 184Role and Sources of Calcium 184Action Potentials and Slow Waves 185Autonomic Innervation 186Cardiac Muscle 187Excitation and Contraction 187Cardiac Hypertrophy 188Chapter 10: Anatomy of the Nervous System 189Microscopic Neuroanatomy 192Embryology 194Central Nervous System 197Brain 197Meninges 200Spinal Cord 202Peripheral Nervous System 205Spinal Nerves 205Cranial Nerves 206Autonomic Nervous System 206Sympathetic Nervous System 208Parasympathetic Nervous System 211Enteric Nervous System 212Chapter 11:Physiology of the Nervous System 213Functional Regions of the Neuron 214Physiology of the Nerve Impulse 214Conduction Velocity and Myelination 216Synaptic Transmission 217Neurotransmitters 220Neural Control of Skeletal Muscle 221Reflexes Involving Skeletal Muscle Contraction 222Voluntary Movement 223Physiology of the Autonomic Nervous System 224Regulation of Autonomic Nervous System Activity 224Autonomic Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors 226Regeneration and Repair in the Nervous System 227Chapter 12: Sense Organs 229Sensory Receptors 230Somatosensation 232Pain 232Proprioception 233Touch 234Visceral Sensations 234Chemical Senses 234Gustation 234Olfaction 235Hearing and Balance 236External Ear 236Middle Ear 238Internal Ear 238Physiology of Hearing 239Mechanisms of Balance 242Vision 245Ocular Adnexa 245Globe 247Lens 250Visual Field and Light Path 251Visual Pathways of the Brain 251Chapter 13: Endocrinology 253Hormones and Their Receptors 254Chemical Classes of Hormones 254Eicosanoids 255Hormone Receptors 256Cellular Effects of PeptideHormones 256Cellular Effects of Steroid and Thyroid Hormones 259Negative and Positive Feedback Regulation 259Hypothalamopituitary Axis 260Hormones of the Neurohypophysis 262Hormones of the Adenohypophysis 263Growth Hormone 263Adrenocorticotropic Hormone 264Thyroid‐Stimulating Hormone 265Other Endocrine Glands 268Parathyroid Glands 268Pancreatic Islets 270Epiphysis (Pineal Gland) 271Chapter 14: The Integument 273Integument 274Skin 274Epidermis 274Dermis 275Hypodermis 276Adnexa of the Skin 276Hair 276Glands 278Modified Epidermis 279Hooves 280Horns 282Dewclaws 283Chestnuts and Ergots 283Coat Color in Horses 283Wool 285Chapter 15: Blood and Other Body Fluids 287Blood 288Formed Elements of Blood and Hematopoiesis 289Erythrocytes 290Platelets 293Leukocytes 294Plasma and Serum 295Blood pH 296Hemostasis and Coagulation 296Platelets and the Endothelium 297Intrinsic and Extrinsic Coagulation Pathways 297Lymph 300Serous Fluids 300Chapter 16: Body Defenses and the Immune System 301Nonspecific Defenses 302Specific Immune Response 304B Lymphocytes 304Immunoglobulins 305T Cells and Cell‐Mediated Immunity 306Lymphocyte Origin, Development, and Residence 308Active and Passive Immunities 308Immunological Surveillance 308Lymphatic System 309Lymphatic Vessels 309Lymph Nodes 309Spleen 312Thymus 313Tonsils 314Chapter 17: Anatomy of the Cardiovascular System 315Heart 316Pericardium 316Cardiac Anatomy 317Vessels 320Blood Vessels 320Lymphatic Vessels 320Pulmonary Circulation 320Systemic Circulation 321Aorta 322Arterial Distribution to the Head 323Arterial Distribution to theThoracic Limb 323Arterial Distribution to the Pelvic Limb 324Veins 325Cranial Vena Cava 326Caudal Vena Cava 327Portal System 327Fetal Circulation 327Chapter 18: Physiology of the Heart andCirculation 331Basic Design and Function of the Cardiovascular System 332Cardiac Cycle 333Systole 336Diastole 336Heart Sounds and Murmurs 336Imaging the Heart 337Electrical Activity of the Heart 337Sinoatrial Node and Heart Rate 337Atrioventricular Node and Other Specialized Conductive Cells in the Heart 339Electrocardiography and Arrhythmias 339Cardiac Output and Its Regulation 340Ventricular Filling and Stroke Volume 340Cardiac Contractility and Stroke Volume 341Structure and Function of Blood Vessels 341Microscopic Structure of Blood Vessels 341Function of Blood Vessels 342Regulation of Arterial Blood Pressure and Blood Volume 344Neural Reflexes 345Humoral Agents 345Paracrine Agents 346Cardiovascular Function During Exercise and Hypovolemia 346Chapter 19 The Respiratory System 349Upper Respiratory Tract 350Nose 350Paranasal Sinuses 352Pharynx 354Larynx 354Trachea and Bronchi 357Thorax 357Lungs 358Pleura 360Physiology of Respiration 360Ventilation 360Gas Exchange 363Gas Transport in Blood 365Control of Ventilation 366Chapter 20: Anatomy of the Digestive System 369Organization of the Digestive System 370Mouth 371Teeth 372Tongue 377Pharynx 378Tonsils 378Esophagus 380Simple Stomach 380Ruminant Stomach 381Ruminoreticulum 384Omasum 385Abomasum 385Small Intestine 385Large Intestine 387Ruminants 387Pig 387Horse 388Peritoneal Features 388Accessory Digestive Organs 389Salivary Glands 389Pancreas 389Liver 391Chapter 21: Physiology of Digestion 395Pregastric Physiology 397Prehension and Chewing 397Saliva and Salivary Glands 397Swallowing 398Ruminant Forestomach 398Fermentative Digestion 398Forestomach Motility 400Reticular, or Esophageal, Groove 400Omasum 401Gastric Physiology 401Gastric Glands and Secretions 401Gastric Motility 402Physiology of the Small Intestine, Exocrine Pancreas, and Liver 403Small Intestine Secretions and Motility 403Exocrine Pancreas 404Liver Digestive Function and Secretion of Bile 406Nutrient Absorption in the Small Intestine 407Physiology of the Cecum and Colon 409Cecum and Colon of the Horse 410Rectum and Defecation 410Neuroendocrine Control of Feeding 411Chapter 22: Nutrition and Metabolism 413Nutrition 414Metabolism 414Absorptive State: Anabolism 415Postabsorptive State: Catabolism 417Energy Needs During Exercise 418Blood Glucose in Ruminants 419Ketosis 419Chapter 23: The Urinary System 421Anatomy of the Kidney 422Blood and Nerve Supply 424Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra 424Micturition 426Overview of Function and Histologyof the Kidneys 426Glomerular Filtration 429Proximal Tubule Transport 430Concentration and Dilution of Urine: Role of the Loop of Henle and Collecting Duct Transport 431Sodium Chloride and Water Reabsorption by the Loop of Henle 432Collecting Duct Transport and Antidiuretic Hormone 433Osmotic Regulation of AntidiureticHormone 434Polyuria and Polydipsia 434Sodium, Potassium, and Aldosterone 434Urine Acidification 436Regulation of Acid‐Base Balance 436Extracellular and Intracellular Buffers 436Classification of Alkalosis and Acidosis and Compensation 438Chapter 24: Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System 441Testis 442Epididymis 444Ductus Deferens 444Scrotum 445Inguinal Canal 447Descent of the Testis 447Castration 449Accessory Sex Glands 449Ampullae 450Vesicular Glands 450Prostate Gland 450Bulbourethral Glands 451Penis 451Prepuce 453Muscles of the Male Genitalia 453Blood and Nerve Supply of the Male Genitalia 453Chapter 25: Physiology of Male Reproduction 455Seminiferous Tubules and Spermatogenesis 456Seminiferous Tubules 456Germ Cells and Spermatogenesis 457Spermatozoa Morphologyand Spermatogenesis 457Rates and Timing of Spermatogenesis 460Epididymis 460Semen and Semen Technology 461Hormones of Male Reproduction 462Endocrine Regulation of Testicular Function 462Testosterone and Its Effects 463Erection and Ejaculation 463Chapter 26: Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System 465Ovaries 466Uterine Tubes 468Uterus 469Vagina 471Vestibule and Vulva 472Blood and Nerve Supply of the Female Reproductive Tract 473Chapter 27: The Ovary and Estrous Cycles 475Oogenesis 476Secondary Follicles 476Hormones and Follicular Development 477Ovulation 481Luteinizing Hormone Surge 481Spontaneous and Reflex Ovulators 481Seasonal Transition 481Corpus Luteum 482Phases of the Estrous Cycle 483Proestrus 484Estrus 484Metestrus 484Diestrus and Anestrus 484Puberty 484Specifics of Selected Estrous Cycles 485Mare 485Cow 485Ewe 486Sow 487Chapter 28:Pregnancy and Parturition 489Fertilization 490Spermatozoa Transport and Viability 490Gamete Fusion and Early Embryonic Development 491Implantation and Placentation 493Hormones of Pregnancy 496Progesterone 496Equine Chorionic Gonadotrophin 497Relaxin 497Pregnancy Diagnosis 497Parturition 498Late Gestation 498Initiation of Parturition 498Oxytocin 499Fetal Presentations and Delivery 499Dystocia 500Chapter 29: Anatomy and Physiology of the Mammary Glands 501Mammary Glands of the Cow 502Suspensory Apparatus 504Blood Supply 504Lymphatic Vessels 506Microscopic Anatomy of the Mammary Gland 506Mammary Glands of Sheep and Goats 508Mammary Glands of Swine 508Mammary Glands of the Horse 509Physiology of Lactation 509Composition of Milk 509Milk Secretion 510Lactogenesis 511Galactogenesis 512Milk Ejection or Letdown 513Colostrum 514Cessation of Lactation 515Chapter 30: Poultry 517Integument 518Body Design 520Skeleton and Bone 522Musculature 524Gastrointestinal System 524Respiratory System 527Ventilation and Gas Exchange 528Cardiovascular System 530Lymphatic System 531Urinary System 531Female Reproductive System 534Egg Formation and Oviposition 535Male Reproductive System 537Sex Chromosomes 538Reproduction and Photoperiods 538Appendix: Abbreviations 539Bibliography 545Index 547