Communication Engineering Principles

IFIOK OTUNG, holds a PhD in Satellite Communications from the University of Surrey, UK and First-Class Honours and Master's degrees in Electrical and Electronic Engineering from the University of Ife, Nigeria. He is a Chartered Engineer and award-winning academic who has made significant contributions to engineering education and research around the world over many years, especially in the UK, Europe, US, Canada, India, China, Japan and Africa. His professional memberships include the IET (Institution of Engineering and Technology) and AIAA (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics). For more information on Professor Otung's professional affiliations and work, see https://professorifiokotung.com/.

• Preface xxiAcknowledgements xxiiiAbout the Companion Website xxv1 Overview of Communication Systems 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Nonelectrical Telecommunication 21.2.1 Verbal Nonelectrical Telecommunication 21.2.2 Visual Nonelectrical Telecommunication 31.2.2.1 Flags, Smoke, and Bonfires 31.2.2.2 Heliography 41.2.2.3 Semaphore 41.2.2.4 Demerits of Visual Nonelectrical Telecommunication 51.3 Modern Telecommunication 51.3.1 Developments in Character Codes 71.3.1.1 Morse Code 71.3.1.2 Baudot Code 71.3.1.3 Hollerith Code 81.3.1.4 EBCDIC Code 91.3.1.5 ASCII Code 91.3.1.6 ISO 8859 Code 101.3.1.7 Unicode 111.3.2 Developments in Services 131.3.2.1 Telegram 131.3.2.2 Telex 141.3.2.3 Facsimile 141.3.2.4 The Digital Era 151.3.3 Developments in Transmission Media 161.3.3.1 Copper Cable 171.3.3.2 Radio 181.3.3.3 Optical Fibre 191.4 Communication System Elements 211.4.1 Information Source 211.4.1.1 Audio Input Devices 221.4.1.2 Video Input Devices 231.4.1.3 Data Input Devices 231.4.1.4 Sensors 231.4.2 Information Sink 241.4.2.1 Audio Output Device 241.4.2.2 Visual Display Devices 261.4.2.3 Storage Devices 281.4.3 Transmitter 291.4.4 Receiver 311.5 Classification of Communication Systems 321.5.1 Simplex Versus Duplex Communication Systems 321.5.2 Analogue Versus Digital Communication Systems 331.5.3 Baseband Versus Modulated Communication Systems 351.5.3.1 Analogue Baseband Communication System 351.5.3.2 Discrete Baseband Communication System 361.5.3.3 Digital Baseband Communication System 411.5.3.4 Modulated Communication Systems 441.5.4 Circuit Versus Packet Switching 471.5.4.1 Circuit Switching 481.5.4.2 Packet Switching 501.6 Epilogue 53References 53Review Questions 532 Introduction to Signals and Systems 572.1 Introduction 572.2 What Is a Signal? 582.3 Forms of Telecommunication Signals 582.4 Subjective Classification of Telecommunication Signals 602.4.1 Speech 602.4.2 Music 622.4.3 Video 632.4.4 Digital Data 642.4.5 Facsimile 642.4.6 Ancillary and Control Signals 652.5 Objective Classification of Telecommunication Signals 652.5.1 Analogue or Digital 652.5.2 Periodic or Nonperiodic 672.5.3 Deterministic or Random 682.5.4 Power or Energy 692.5.5 Even or Odd 692.6 Special Waveforms and Signals 712.6.1 Unit Step Function 742.6.2 Signum Function 742.6.3 Rectangular Pulse 752.6.4 Ramp Pulse 762.6.5 Triangular Pulse 772.6.6 Sawtooth and Trapezoidal Pulses 772.6.7 Unit Impulse Function 782.6.8 Sinc Function 792.7 Sinusoidal Signals 812.7.1 Qualitative Introduction 822.7.2 Parameters of a Sinusoidal Signal 832.7.2.1 Angle 862.7.2.2 Amplitude 872.7.2.3 Angular Frequency 872.7.2.4 Frequency 872.7.2.5 Period 882.7.2.6 Wavelength 882.7.2.7 Initial Phase 882.7.2.8 Phase Difference 892.7.3 Addition of Sinusoids 922.7.3.1 Same Frequency and Phase 932.7.3.2 Same Frequency but Different Phases 932.7.3.3 Multiple Sinusoids of Different Frequencies 972.7.3.4 Beats Involving Two Sinusoids 972.7.4 Multiplication of Sinusoids 992.8 Logarithmic Units 992.8.1 Logarithmic Units for System Gain 1012.8.2 Logarithmic Units for Voltage, Power, and Other Quantities 1022.8.3 Logarithmic Unit Dos and Don’ts 1042.9 Calibration of a Signal Transmission Path 1072.10 Systems and Their Properties 1092.10.1 Memory 1092.10.2 Stability 1112.10.3 Causality 1122.10.4 Linearity 1132.10.5 Time Invariance 1162.10.6 Invertibility 1182.11 Summary 121Questions 1223 Time Domain Analysis of Signals and Systems 1273.1 Introduction 1273.2 Basic Signal Operations 1283.2.1 Time Shifting (Signal Delay and Advance) 1283.2.2 Time Reversal 1303.2.3 Time Scaling 1323.3 Random Signals 1343.3.1 Random Processes 1343.3.2 Random Signal Parameters 1353.3.3 Stationarity and Ergodicity 1383.4 Standard Distribution Functions 1393.4.1 Gaussian or Normal Distribution 1393.4.2 Rayleigh Distribution 1433.4.3 Lognormal Distribution 1483.4.4 Rician Distribution 1533.4.5 Exponential and Poisson Distributions 1573.5 Signal Characterisation 1623.5.1 Mean 1623.5.2 Power 1633.5.3 Energy 1673.5.4 Root-mean-square Value 1683.5.5 Autocorrelation 1713.5.6 Covariance and Correlation Coefficient 1763.6 Linear Time Invariant System Analysis 1803.6.1 LTI System Response 1813.6.2 Evaluation of Convolution Integral 1863.6.3 Evaluation of Convolution Sum 1903.6.4 Autocorrelation and Convolution 1963.7 Summary 197References 198Questions 1984 Frequency Domain Analysis of Signals and Systems 2034.1 Introduction 2034.2 Fourier Series 2054.2.1 Sinusoidal Form of Fourier Series 2064.2.1.1 Time Shifting 2114.2.1.2 Time Reversal 2124.2.1.3 Even and Odd Functions 2124.2.1.4 Piecewise Linear Functions 2144.2.2 Complex Exponential Form of Fourier Series 2224.2.3 Amplitude and Phase Spectra 2244.2.3.1 Double-sided Spectrum 2274.2.3.2 Single-sided Spectrum 2284.2.4 Fourier Series Application to Selected Waveforms 2354.2.4.1 Flat-top-sampled Signal 2354.2.4.2 Binary ASK Signal and Sinusoidal Pulse Train 2434.2.4.3 Trapezoidal Pulse Train 2484.3 Fourier Transform 2534.3.1 Properties of the Fourier Transform 2574.3.1.1 Even and Odd Functions 2574.3.1.2 Linearity 2584.3.1.3 Time Shifting 2584.3.1.4 Frequency Shifting 2584.3.1.5 Time Scaling 2584.3.1.6 Time Reversal 2594.3.1.7 Complex Conjugation 2594.3.1.8 Duality 2594.3.1.9 Differentiation 2594.3.1.10 Integration 2604.3.1.11 Multiplication 2604.3.1.12 Convolution 2604.3.1.13 Areas 2604.3.1.14 Energy 2614.3.2 Table of Fourier Transforms 2634.3.3 Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals 2684.4 Discrete Fourier Transform 2704.4.1 Properties of the Discrete Fourier Transform 2754.4.1.1 Periodicity 2754.4.1.2 Symmetry 2764.4.2 Fast Fourier Transform 2774.4.3 Practical Issues in DFT Implementation 2834.4.3.1 Aliasing 2834.4.3.2 Frequency Resolution 2844.4.3.3 Spectral Leakage 2854.4.3.4 Spectral Smearing 2854.4.3.5 Spectral Density and Its Variance 2884.5 Laplace and z-transforms 2914.5.1 Laplace Transform 2914.5.2 z-transform 2924.6 Inverse Relationship Between Time and Frequency Domains 2954.7 Frequency Domain Characterisation of LTI Systems 2974.7.1 Transfer Function 2974.7.2 Output Spectral Density of LTI Systems 3014.7.3 Signal and System Bandwidths 3024.7.3.1 Subjective Bandwidth 3034.7.3.2 Null Bandwidth 3034.7.3.3 3 dB Bandwidth 3044.7.3.4 Fractional Power Containment Bandwidth 3064.7.3.5 Noise Equivalent Bandwidth 3084.7.4 Distortionless Transmission 3114.7.5 Attenuation and Delay Distortions 3134.7.6 Nonlinear Distortions 3144.8 Summary 316References 317Questions 3175 Transmission Media 3275.1 Introduction 3275.2 Metallic Line Systems 3285.2.1 Wire Pairs 3285.2.2 Coaxial Cable 3325.2.3 Attenuation in Metallic Lines 3335.3 Transmission Line Theory 3345.3.1 Incident and ReflectedWaves 3375.3.2 Secondary Line Constants 3385.3.3 Characteristic Impedance 3405.3.4 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients 3425.3.5 StandingWaves 3455.3.6 Line Impedance and Admittance 3475.3.7 Line Termination and Impedance Matching 3535.3.8 Scattering Parameters 3595.3.9 Smith Chart 3635.4 Optical Fibre 3655.4.1 Optical Fibre Types 3675.4.1.1 Single-mode Step Index 3685.4.1.2 Multimode Step Index Fibre 3685.4.1.3 Multimode Graded Index 3695.4.2 Coupling of Light into Fibre 3695.4.3 Attenuation in Optical Fibre 3715.4.3.1 Intrinsic Fibre Loss 3715.4.3.2 Extrinsic Fibre Loss 3755.4.4 Dispersion in Optical Fibre 3765.4.4.1 Intermodal Dispersion 3765.4.4.2 Intramodal Dispersion 3775.5 Radio 3805.5.1 Maxwell’s Equations 3825.5.2 RadioWave Propagation Modes 3845.5.2.1 GroundWave 3865.5.2.2 SkyWave 3865.5.2.3 Line-of-sight (LOS) 3875.5.2.4 Satellite Communications 3875.5.2.5 Mobile Communications 3885.5.2.6 Ionospheric Scatter 3885.5.2.7 Tropospheric Scatter 3885.5.3 RadioWave Propagation Effects 3885.5.3.1 Ionospheric Effects 3885.5.3.2 Tropospheric Attenuation 3905.5.3.3 Tropospheric Scintillation 3935.5.3.4 Depolarisation 3945.5.3.5 Tropospheric Refraction 3955.5.4 Reflection and Refraction 3975.5.5 Rough Surface Scattering 4065.5.6 Diffraction 4085.5.6.1 Diffraction Configuration and Terms 4085.5.6.2 Fresnel Zones 4105.5.6.3 Knife-edge Diffraction Loss 4115.5.7 Path Loss 4165.5.7.1 Free Space Path Loss 4165.5.7.2 Plane Earth Propagation Path Loss 4185.5.7.3 Terrestrial Cellular Radio Path Loss 4215.5.8 Radio Frequency Allocation 4245.6 Summary 424References 425Questions 4266 Noise in Communication Systems 4316.1 Introduction 4316.2 Physical Sources of Random Noise 4326.2.1 Thermal or Johnson Noise 4326.2.2 Quantisation Noise 4336.2.3 Radio or Sky Noise 4336.2.4 Shot Noise 4356.2.5 Partition Noise 4356.2.6 Quantum Noise 4356.2.7 Flicker or 1/f Noise 4366.3 Additive White Gaussian Noise 4376.3.1 Gaussian PDF of Noise 4386.3.2 White Noise 4396.3.3 Canonical and Envelope Representations of Noise 4446.4 System Noise Calculations 4486.4.1 Available Noise Power 4486.4.2 Equivalent Noise Temperature 4506.4.3 Noise Figure of a Single System 4516.4.4 Noise Figure of Cascaded Systems 4546.4.5 Overall System Noise Temperature 4576.4.6 Signal-to-noise Ratio 4596.5 Noise Effects in Communication Systems 4626.5.1 SNR in Analogue Communication Systems 4626.5.2 BER in Digital Communication Systems 4656.6 Summary 469References 470Questions 4707 Amplitude Modulation 4737.1 Introduction 4737.2 AM Signals: Time Domain Description 4747.2.1 AMWaveform 4747.2.2 Sketching AMWaveforms 4757.2.3 Modulation Factor 4767.3 Spectrum and Power of Amplitude Modulated Signals 4807.3.1 Sinusoidal Modulating Signal 4807.3.2 Arbitrary Message Signal 4827.3.3 Power 4857.4 AM Modulators 4887.4.1 Generation of AM Signal 4887.4.1.1 Linearly-varied-gain Modulator 4887.4.1.2 Switching and Square-law Modulators 4897.4.2 AM Transmitters 4917.4.2.1 Low-level Transmitter 4917.4.2.2 High-level Transmitter 4927.5 AM Demodulators 4927.5.1 Diode Demodulator 4937.5.2 Coherent Demodulator 4967.5.3 AM Receivers 4987.5.3.1 Tuned Radio Frequency (RF) Receiver 4987.5.3.2 Superheterodyne Receiver 4997.6 Merits, Demerits, and Application of AM 5017.7 Variants of AM 5027.7.1 DSB 5027.7.1.1 Waveform and Spectrum of DSB 5027.7.1.2 DSB Modulator 5047.7.1.3 DSB Demodulator 5077.7.1.4 DSB Applications 5097.7.2 SSB 5107.7.2.1 Merits and Demerits of SSB 5117.7.2.2 SSB Modulators 5147.7.2.3 SSB Demodulator 5167.7.2.4 Applications of SSB 5177.7.3 ISB 5187.7.3.1 ISB Modulator 5187.7.3.2 ISB Demodulator 5187.7.3.3 ISB Merits, Demerit, and Application 5207.7.4 VSB 5207.7.4.1 VSB Modulator 5217.7.4.2 VSB Demodulator 5227.8 Summary 524Questions 5258 Frequency and Phase Modulation 5298.1 Introduction 5298.2 Basic Concepts of FM and PM 5308.2.1 Frequency Modulation Concepts 5318.2.2 Phase Modulation Concepts 5358.2.3 Relationship Between FM and PM 5378.2.3.1 Frequency Variations in PM 5378.2.3.2 Phase Variations in FM 5408.3 FM and PMWaveforms 5438.3.1 Sketching SimpleWaveforms 5438.3.2 GeneralWaveform 5448.4 Spectrum and Power of FM and PM 5498.4.1 Narrowband FM and PM 5498.4.1.1 Frequency Components 5498.4.1.2 Comparing AM, NBFM, and NBPM 5518.4.1.3 Amplitude Variations in NBFM and NBPM 5568.4.2 Wideband FM and PM 5578.4.2.1 Spectrum 5588.4.2.2 Power 5608.4.2.3 Bandwidth 5638.4.2.4 FM or PM? 5678.5 FM and PM Modulators 5678.5.1 Narrowband Modulators 5678.5.2 Indirect Wideband Modulators 5698.5.3 Direct Wideband Modulators 5728.5.3.1 LCO Modulator 5738.5.3.2 VCO Modulator 5758.6 FM and PM Demodulators 5768.6.1 Direct Demodulator 5778.6.1.1 Filter-based Demodulator 5778.6.1.2 Digital Demodulator 5778.6.2 Indirect Demodulator 5778.6.2.1 PLL Demodulation Process 5798.6.2.2 PLL States 5808.6.2.3 PLL Features 5808.6.3 Phase Demodulator 5808.6.4 Frequency Discriminators 5818.6.4.1 Differentiators 5818.6.4.2 Tuned Circuits 5838.7 FM Transmitter and Receiver 5848.7.1 Transmitter 5848.7.2 SNR and Bandwidth Trade-off 5868.7.3 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis 5868.7.4 Receiver 5888.8 Noise Effect in FM 5888.9 Overview of FM and PM Features 5948.9.1 Merits 5948.9.2 Demerits 5948.9.3 Applications 5958.10 Summary 595Questions 5959 Sampling 5999.1 Introduction 5999.2 Sampling Theorem 5999.3 Proof of Sampling Theorem 6009.3.1 Lowpass Signals 6029.3.2 Bandpass Signals 6039.3.3 Sampling at Nyquist Rate 6069.4 Aliasing 6079.5 Anti-alias Filter 6139.6 Non-instantaneous Sampling 6159.6.1 Natural Sampling 6169.6.2 Flat-top Sampling 6189.6.3 Aperture Effect 6229.7 Summary 623Questions 624Reference 62510 Digital Baseband Coding 62710.1 Introduction 62710.2 Concept and Classes of Quantisation 62810.3 Uniform Quantisation 63410.3.1 Quantisation Noise 63510.3.2 Dynamic Range of a Quantiser 63610.3.3 Signal-to-quantisation-noise Ratio (SQNR) 63610.3.4 Design Considerations 63910.3.5 Demerits of Uniform Quantisation 64010.4 Nonuniform Quantisation 64110.4.1 Compressor Characteristic 64210.4.2 A-law Companding 64410.4.3 𝜇-law Companding 64510.4.4 Companding Gain and Penalty 64710.4.5 Practical Nonlinear PCM 65010.4.6 SQNR of Practical Nonlinear PCM 65710.5 Differential PCM (DPCM) 66110.5.1 Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) 66410.5.2 Delta Modulation 66410.5.2.1 Quantisation Error 66410.5.2.2 Prediction Filter 66610.5.2.3 Design Parameters 66610.5.2.4 Merits and Demerits of DM 66610.5.2.5 Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) 66810.5.2.6 Delta Sigma Modulation 66810.6 Low Bit Rate Speech Coding 66810.6.1 Waveform Coders 67110.6.2 Vocoders 67110.6.2.1 IMBE 67210.6.2.2 LPC 67210.6.2.3 MELP 67310.6.3 Hybrid Coders 67310.6.3.1 APC 67310.6.3.2 MPE-LPC 67310.6.3.3 CELP 67310.7 Line Codes 67410.7.1 NRZ Codes 67410.7.2 RZ Codes 67510.7.3 Biphase Codes 67610.7.4 RLL Codes 67610.7.5 Block Codes 67710.8 Summary 680Reference 681Questions 68111 Digital Modulated Transmission 68311.1 Introduction 68311.2 Orthogonality of Energy Signals 68711.3 Signal Space 68911.3.1 Interpretation of Signal-space Diagrams 69011.3.2 Complex Notation for 2D Signal Space 69311.3.3 Signal-spaceWorked Examples 69411.4 Digital Transmission Model 69911.5 Noise Effects 70111.6 Symbol and Bit Error Ratios 70311.6.1 Special Cases 70511.6.2 Arbitrary Binary Transmission 70811.7 Binary Modulation 71211.7.1 ASK 71211.7.2 PSK 71411.7.3 FSK 71511.7.3.1 Generation 71511.7.3.2 Spectrum 71611.7.3.3 Frequency Spacing and MSK 71611.7.4 Minimum Transmission Bandwidth 71811.8 Coherent Binary Detection 71911.8.1 ASK Detector 71911.8.2 PSK Detector 72111.8.3 FSK Detector 72111.9 Noncoherent Binary Detection 72311.9.1 Noncoherent ASK Detector 72511.9.2 Noncoherent FSK Detector 72711.9.3 DPSK 72711.10 M-ary Transmission 73011.10.1 Bandwidth Efficiency 73011.10.2 M-ary ASK 73211.10.2.1 M-ary ASK Modulator 73211.10.2.2 M-ary ASK Detector 73411.10.2.3 BER of M-ary ASK 73411.10.3 M-ary PSK 73711.10.3.1 QPSK Modulator and Detector 73811.10.3.2 M-ary PSK Modulator and Detector 74011.10.3.3 BER of M-ary PSK 74311.10.4 M-ary FSK 74611.10.4.1 M-ary FSK Modulator and Detector 74611.10.4.2 BER of M-ary FSK 74611.10.4.3 Noise-bandwidth Trade-off in M-ary FSK 74811.10.5 M-ary APSK 74911.10.5.1 16-APSK 74911.10.5.2 BER of Square M-ary APSK 75211.11 Design Parameters 75411.12 Summary 757Reference 758Questions 75912 Pulse Shaping and Detection 76312.1 Introduction 76312.2 Anti-ISI Filtering 76512.2.1 Nyquist Filtering 76712.2.2 Raised Cosine Filtering 76912.2.3 Square Root Raised Cosine Filtering 77112.2.4 Duobinary Signalling 77412.2.4.1 Cosine Filter 77412.2.4.2 Signal Power Trade-off 77712.2.4.3 Sine Filter 77812.2.4.4 Polybinary Signalling 77912.3 Information Capacity Law 78012.4 The Digital Receiver 78712.4.1 Adaptive Equalisation 78712.4.2 Matched Filter 78712.4.2.1 Specification of a Matched Filter 78812.4.2.2 Matched Filter by Correlation 79012.4.2.3 Matched FilterWorked Examples 79112.4.3 Clock Extraction 79712.4.4 Eye Diagrams 79912.5 Summary 799References 801Questions 80113 Multiplexing Strategies 80513.1 Introduction 80513.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing 80913.2.1 General Concepts 80913.2.2 Demerits of Flat-level FDM 81213.2.3 Future of FDM Technology 81313.2.4 FDM Hierarchies 81413.2.4.1 UK System 81613.2.4.2 European System 82013.2.4.3 Bell System 82113.2.4.4 Nonvoice Signals 82213.2.5 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 82313.3 Time Division Multiplexing 82513.3.1 General Concepts 82513.3.2 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy 82713.3.2.1 E1 System 82713.3.2.2 T1 and J1 Systems 83213.3.2.3 PDH Problems 83813.3.3 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy 83813.3.3.1 SDH Rates 83913.3.3.2 SDH Frame Structure 83913.3.3.3 SONET 84413.3.4 ATM 84613.3.4.1 ATM Layered Architecture 84713.3.4.2 ATM Network Components 85013.3.4.3 ATM Cell Header 85113.3.4.4 ATM Features Summary 85213.3.4.5 ATM Versus IP 85213.4 Code Division Multiplexing 85313.4.1 Types of Spread Spectrum Modulation 85313.4.2 CDM Transmitter 85613.4.3 CDM Receiver 85813.4.4 Crucial Features of CDM 86313.4.4.1 Synchronisation 86313.4.4.2 Cross-correlation of PN Codes 86413.4.4.3 Power Control 86413.4.4.4 Processing Gain 86613.5 Multiple Access 86713.5.1 FDMA 86813.5.2 TDMA 86913.5.3 CDMA 87113.5.4 Hybrid Schemes 87213.6 Summary 873Questions 874Appendix A Character Codes 877Appendix B Trigonometric Identities 883Appendix C Tables and Constants 885C.1 Constants 885C.2 SI Units 886C.3 Complementary Error Function erfc(x) and Q function Q(x) 887Index 891