SIMONE CIRANI, PHD, is a Co-Founder and Head of IoT at Caligoo Inc., Chicago, IL, USA. GIANLUIGI FERRARI, PHD, is a Faculty Member at the Department of Engineering and Architecture, at the University of Parma, Italy. He is also Co-founder and President of things2i s.r.l., Parma, Italy. MARCO PICONE, PHD, is a Co-Founder and Head of Mobile Computing at Caligoo Inc., Chicago, IL, USA. LUCA VELTRI, PHD, is a Faculty Member at the Department of Engineering and Architecture, at the University of Parma, Italy.

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• Preface xv1 Preliminaries, Motivation, and Related Work 11.1 What is the Internet of Things? 11.2 Wireless Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks:The Ancestors without IP 21.3 IoT-enabled Applications 31.3.1 Home and Building Automation 31.3.2 Smart Cities 41.3.3 Smart Grids 41.3.4 Industrial IoT 51.3.5 Smart Farming 72 Standards 92.1 “Traditional” Internet Review 92.1.1 Physical/Link Layer 102.1.1.1 IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) 112.1.1.2 IEEE 802.11 122.1.2 Network Layer 142.1.2.1 IPv6 and IPv4 142.1.3 Transport Layer 172.1.3.1 TCP and UDP 192.1.4 Application Layer 212.1.4.1 HTTP 212.1.4.2 AMQP 222.1.4.3 SIP 232.2 The Internet ofThings 252.2.1 Designing the Architecture of an IP-based Internet of Things 262.2.2 Physical/Link Layer 282.2.2.1 IEEE 802.15.4 and ZigBee 282.2.2.2 Low-powerWi-Fi 302.2.2.3 Bluetooth and BLE 312.2.2.4 Powerline Communications 322.2.3 Network Layer 332.2.3.1 The 6LoWPAN Adaptation Layer 342.2.4 Transport Layer 342.2.5 Application Layer 342.2.5.1 CoAP 352.2.5.2 CoSIP Protocol Specification 602.3 The Industrial IoT 763 Interoperability 793.1 Applications in the IoT 793.2 The Verticals: Cloud-based Solutions 803.3 REST Architectures:TheWeb of Things 813.3.1 REST: TheWeb as a Platform 823.3.1.1 Resource-oriented Architectures 833.3.1.2 REST Architectures 843.3.1.3 Representation of Resources 843.3.1.4 Resource Identifiers 853.3.1.5 Statelessness 863.3.1.6 Applications as Finite-state Machines 863.3.1.7 Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State 863.3.2 Richardson MaturityModel 883.3.2.1 Level 0: the Swamp of POX 883.3.2.2 Level 1: Resources 903.3.2.3 Level 2: HTTP Verbs 903.3.2.4 Level 3: Hypermedia 953.3.2.5 The Meaning of the Levels 973.4 TheWeb of Things 973.5 Messaging Queues and Publish/Subscribe Communications 983.5.1 Advantages of the Pub/Sub Model 993.5.2 Disadvantages of the Pub/Sub Model 1003.5.3 Message Queue Telemetry Transport 1003.5.3.1 MQTT versus AMQP 1013.6 Session Initiation for the IoT 1023.6.1 Motivations 1023.6.2 Lightweight Sessions in the IoT 1043.6.2.1 A Protocol for Constrained Session Initiation 1063.6.2.2 Session Initiation 1063.6.2.3 Session Tear-down 1083.6.2.4 Session Modification 1083.7 Performance Evaluation 1093.7.1 Implementation 1093.7.2 Experimental Results 1113.7.3 Conclusions 1143.8 Optimized Communications: the Dual-network Management Protocol 1153.8.1 DNMP Motivations 1153.8.2 RelatedWork 1173.8.3 The DNMP Protocol 1183.8.4 Implementation with IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.11s 1233.8.4.1 LPLT Networking 1233.8.4.2 HPHT Networking 1233.8.4.3 Node Integration 1243.8.5 Performance Evaluation 1253.8.5.1 Experimental Setup 1253.8.5.2 Operational Limitations of IEEE 802.15.4 1263.8.6 IEEE 802.15.4-controlled Selective Activation of the IEEE 802.11s Network 1293.8.7 Conclusions 1303.9 Discoverability in Constrained Environments 1313.9.1 CoRE Link Format 1313.9.1.1 CoRE Link Format: Discovery 1323.9.1.2 Link Format 1333.9.1.3 The Interface Description Attribute 1353.9.2 CoRE Interfaces 1353.9.2.1 Sensor 1363.9.2.2 Parameter 1373.9.2.3 Read-only Parameter 1373.9.2.4 Actuator 1373.10 Data Formats: Media Types for Sensor Markup Language 1383.10.1 JSON Representations 1413.10.1.1 Single Datapoint 1413.10.1.2 Multiple Datapoints 1423.10.1.3 Multiple Measurements 1424 Discoverability 1454.1 Service and Resource Discovery 1454.2 Local and Large-scale Service Discovery 1464.2.1 ZeroConf 1514.2.2 UPnP 1524.2.3 URI Beacons and the PhysicalWeb 1524.3 Scalable and Self-configuring Architecture for Service Discovery in the IoT 1544.3.1 IoT Gateway 1564.3.1.1 Proxy Functionality 1564.3.1.2 Service and Resource Discovery 1584.3.2 A P2P-based Large-scale Service Discovery Architecture 1594.3.2.1 Distributed Location Service 1604.3.2.2 Distributed Geographic Table 1614.3.2.3 An Architecture for Large-scale Service Discovery based on Peer-to-peer Technologies 1624.3.3 Zeroconf-based Local Service Discovery for Constrained Environments 1674.3.3.1 Architecture 1674.3.3.2 Service Discovery Protocol 1684.3.4 Implementation Results 1704.3.4.1 Local Service Discovery 1714.3.4.2 Large-scale Service Discovery 1754.4 Lightweight Service Discovery in Low-power IoT Networks 1784.4.1 Efficient Forwarding Protocol for Service Discovery 1804.4.1.1 Multicast through Local Filtered Flooding 1814.4.2 Efficient Multiple Unicast Forwarding 1834.5 Implementation Results 1855 Security and Privacy in the IoT 1915.1 Security Issues in the IoT 1925.2 Security Mechanisms Overview 1965.2.1 Traditional vs Lightweight security 1965.2.1.1 Network Layer 1975.2.1.2 Transport Layer 1995.2.1.3 Application Layer 2015.2.2 Lightweight Cryptography 2025.2.2.1 Symmetric-key LWC Algorithms 2035.2.2.2 Public-key (Asymmetric) LWC Algorithms 2065.2.2.3 Lightweight Cryptographic Hash Functions 2105.2.2.4 Homomorphic Encryption Schemes 2135.2.3 Key Agreement, Distribution, and Security Bootstrapping 2145.2.3.1 Key Agreement Protocols 2155.2.3.2 Shared Group-key Distribution 2155.2.3.3 Security Bootstrapping 2165.2.4 Processing Data in the Encrypted Domain: Secure Data Aggregation 2175.2.5 Authorization Mechanisms for Secure IoT Services 2195.3 Privacy Issues in the IoT 2225.3.1 The Role of Authorization 2225.3.2 IoT-OAS: Delegation-based Authorization for the Internet of Things 2275.3.2.1 Architecture 2275.3.2.2 Granting Access Tokens 2295.3.2.3 Authorizing Requests 2315.3.2.4 SP-to-IoT-OAS Communication: Protocol Details 2315.3.2.5 Configuration 2325.3.3 IoT-OAS Application Scenarios 2325.3.3.1 Network Broker Communication 2335.3.3.2 Gateway-based Communication 2355.3.3.3 End-to-End CoAP Communication 2355.3.3.4 Hybrid Gateway-based Communication 2356 Cloud and Fog Computing for the IoT 2376.1 Cloud Computing 2376.2 Big Data Processing Pattern 2386.3 Big Stream 2396.3.1 Big-stream-oriented Architecture 2436.3.2 Graph-based Processing 2476.3.3 Implementation 2516.3.3.1 Acquisition Module 2516.3.3.2 Normalization Module 2536.3.3.3 Graph Framework 2546.3.3.4 Application Register Module 2556.3.4 Performance Evaluation 2576.3.5 Solutions and Security Considerations 2626.4 Big Stream and Security 2636.4.1 Graph-based Cloud System Security 2666.4.2 Normalization after a Secure Stream Acquisition with OFS Module 2686.4.3 Enhancing the Application Register with the IGS Module 2696.4.4 Securing Streams inside Graph Nodes 2736.4.5 Evaluation of a Secure Big Stream Architecture 2776.5 Fog Computing and the IoT 2816.6 The Role of the IoTHub 2836.6.1 Virtualization and Replication 2856.6.1.1 The IoT Hub 2856.6.1.2 Operational Scenarios 2876.6.1.3 Synchronization Protocol 2907 The IoT in Practice 3037.1 Hardware for the IoT 3037.1.1 Classes of Constrained Devices 3057.1.2 Hardware Platforms 3077.1.2.1 TelosB 3077.1.2.2 Zolertia Z1 3077.1.2.3 OpenMote 3107.1.2.4 Arduino 3137.1.2.5 Intel Galileo 3157.1.2.6 Raspberry Pi 3187.2 Software for the IoT 3217.2.1 OpenWSN 3217.2.2 TinyOS 3227.2.3 FreeRTOS 3237.2.4 TI-RTOS 3237.2.5 RIOT 3247.2.6 Contiki OS 3257.2.6.1 Networking 3257.2.6.2 Low-power Operation 3267.2.6.3 Simulation 3267.2.6.4 Programming Model 3277.2.6.5 Features 3287.3 Vision and Architecture of a Testbed for theWeb of Things 3287.3.1 An All-IP-based Infrastructure for Smart Objects 3307.3.2 Enabling Interactions with Smart Objects through the IoT Hub 3327.3.2.1 Integration Challenges 3347.3.3 Testbed Access and Security 3357.3.3.1 The Role of Authorization 3357.3.4 Exploiting the Testbed:WoT Applications for Mobile and Wearable Devices 3367.3.5 Open Challenges and Future Vision 3387.4 Wearable Computing for the IoT: Interaction Patterns with Smart Objects in RESTful Environments 3407.4.1 Shaping the Internet ofThings in a Mobile-Centric World 3407.4.2 Interaction Patterns with Smart Objects throughWearable Devices 3427.4.2.1 Smart Object Communication Principles 3427.4.2.2 Interaction Patterns 3437.4.3 Implementation in a Real-world IoT Testbed 3457.4.3.1 Future Vision: towards the Tactile Internet 3487.5 Effective Authorization for theWeb ofThings 3497.5.1 Authorization Framework Architecture 3537.5.1.1 System Operations 3537.5.2 Implementation and Validation 357Reference 359Index 381

SIMONE CIRANI, PHD, is a Co-Founder and Head of IoT at Caligoo Inc., Chicago, IL, USA. GIANLUIGI FERRARI, PHD, is a Faculty Member at the Department of Engineering and Architecture, at the University of Parma, Italy. He is also Co-founder and President of things2i s.r.l., Parma, Italy. MARCO PICONE, PHD, is a Co-Founder and Head of Mobile Computing at Caligoo Inc., Chicago, IL, USA. LUCA VELTRI, PHD, is a Faculty Member at the Department of Engineering and Architecture, at the University of Parma, Italy.

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• Preface xv1 Preliminaries, Motivation, and Related Work 11.1 What is the Internet of Things? 11.2 Wireless Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks:The Ancestors without IP 21.3 IoT-enabled Applications 31.3.1 Home and Building Automation 31.3.2 Smart Cities 41.3.3 Smart Grids 41.3.4 Industrial IoT 51.3.5 Smart Farming 72 Standards 92.1 “Traditional” Internet Review 92.1.1 Physical/Link Layer 102.1.1.1 IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) 112.1.1.2 IEEE 802.11 122.1.2 Network Layer 142.1.2.1 IPv6 and IPv4 142.1.3 Transport Layer 172.1.3.1 TCP and UDP 192.1.4 Application Layer 212.1.4.1 HTTP 212.1.4.2 AMQP 222.1.4.3 SIP 232.2 The Internet ofThings 252.2.1 Designing the Architecture of an IP-based Internet of Things 262.2.2 Physical/Link Layer 282.2.2.1 IEEE 802.15.4 and ZigBee 282.2.2.2 Low-powerWi-Fi 302.2.2.3 Bluetooth and BLE 312.2.2.4 Powerline Communications 322.2.3 Network Layer 332.2.3.1 The 6LoWPAN Adaptation Layer 342.2.4 Transport Layer 342.2.5 Application Layer 342.2.5.1 CoAP 352.2.5.2 CoSIP Protocol Specification 602.3 The Industrial IoT 763 Interoperability 793.1 Applications in the IoT 793.2 The Verticals: Cloud-based Solutions 803.3 REST Architectures:TheWeb of Things 813.3.1 REST: TheWeb as a Platform 823.3.1.1 Resource-oriented Architectures 833.3.1.2 REST Architectures 843.3.1.3 Representation of Resources 843.3.1.4 Resource Identifiers 853.3.1.5 Statelessness 863.3.1.6 Applications as Finite-state Machines 863.3.1.7 Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State 863.3.2 Richardson MaturityModel 883.3.2.1 Level 0: the Swamp of POX 883.3.2.2 Level 1: Resources 903.3.2.3 Level 2: HTTP Verbs 903.3.2.4 Level 3: Hypermedia 953.3.2.5 The Meaning of the Levels 973.4 TheWeb of Things 973.5 Messaging Queues and Publish/Subscribe Communications 983.5.1 Advantages of the Pub/Sub Model 993.5.2 Disadvantages of the Pub/Sub Model 1003.5.3 Message Queue Telemetry Transport 1003.5.3.1 MQTT versus AMQP 1013.6 Session Initiation for the IoT 1023.6.1 Motivations 1023.6.2 Lightweight Sessions in the IoT 1043.6.2.1 A Protocol for Constrained Session Initiation 1063.6.2.2 Session Initiation 1063.6.2.3 Session Tear-down 1083.6.2.4 Session Modification 1083.7 Performance Evaluation 1093.7.1 Implementation 1093.7.2 Experimental Results 1113.7.3 Conclusions 1143.8 Optimized Communications: the Dual-network Management Protocol 1153.8.1 DNMP Motivations 1153.8.2 RelatedWork 1173.8.3 The DNMP Protocol 1183.8.4 Implementation with IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.11s 1233.8.4.1 LPLT Networking 1233.8.4.2 HPHT Networking 1233.8.4.3 Node Integration 1243.8.5 Performance Evaluation 1253.8.5.1 Experimental Setup 1253.8.5.2 Operational Limitations of IEEE 802.15.4 1263.8.6 IEEE 802.15.4-controlled Selective Activation of the IEEE 802.11s Network 1293.8.7 Conclusions 1303.9 Discoverability in Constrained Environments 1313.9.1 CoRE Link Format 1313.9.1.1 CoRE Link Format: Discovery 1323.9.1.2 Link Format 1333.9.1.3 The Interface Description Attribute 1353.9.2 CoRE Interfaces 1353.9.2.1 Sensor 1363.9.2.2 Parameter 1373.9.2.3 Read-only Parameter 1373.9.2.4 Actuator 1373.10 Data Formats: Media Types for Sensor Markup Language 1383.10.1 JSON Representations 1413.10.1.1 Single Datapoint 1413.10.1.2 Multiple Datapoints 1423.10.1.3 Multiple Measurements 1424 Discoverability 1454.1 Service and Resource Discovery 1454.2 Local and Large-scale Service Discovery 1464.2.1 ZeroConf 1514.2.2 UPnP 1524.2.3 URI Beacons and the PhysicalWeb 1524.3 Scalable and Self-configuring Architecture for Service Discovery in the IoT 1544.3.1 IoT Gateway 1564.3.1.1 Proxy Functionality 1564.3.1.2 Service and Resource Discovery 1584.3.2 A P2P-based Large-scale Service Discovery Architecture 1594.3.2.1 Distributed Location Service 1604.3.2.2 Distributed Geographic Table 1614.3.2.3 An Architecture for Large-scale Service Discovery based on Peer-to-peer Technologies 1624.3.3 Zeroconf-based Local Service Discovery for Constrained Environments 1674.3.3.1 Architecture 1674.3.3.2 Service Discovery Protocol 1684.3.4 Implementation Results 1704.3.4.1 Local Service Discovery 1714.3.4.2 Large-scale Service Discovery 1754.4 Lightweight Service Discovery in Low-power IoT Networks 1784.4.1 Efficient Forwarding Protocol for Service Discovery 1804.4.1.1 Multicast through Local Filtered Flooding 1814.4.2 Efficient Multiple Unicast Forwarding 1834.5 Implementation Results 1855 Security and Privacy in the IoT 1915.1 Security Issues in the IoT 1925.2 Security Mechanisms Overview 1965.2.1 Traditional vs Lightweight security 1965.2.1.1 Network Layer 1975.2.1.2 Transport Layer 1995.2.1.3 Application Layer 2015.2.2 Lightweight Cryptography 2025.2.2.1 Symmetric-key LWC Algorithms 2035.2.2.2 Public-key (Asymmetric) LWC Algorithms 2065.2.2.3 Lightweight Cryptographic Hash Functions 2105.2.2.4 Homomorphic Encryption Schemes 2135.2.3 Key Agreement, Distribution, and Security Bootstrapping 2145.2.3.1 Key Agreement Protocols 2155.2.3.2 Shared Group-key Distribution 2155.2.3.3 Security Bootstrapping 2165.2.4 Processing Data in the Encrypted Domain: Secure Data Aggregation 2175.2.5 Authorization Mechanisms for Secure IoT Services 2195.3 Privacy Issues in the IoT 2225.3.1 The Role of Authorization 2225.3.2 IoT-OAS: Delegation-based Authorization for the Internet of Things 2275.3.2.1 Architecture 2275.3.2.2 Granting Access Tokens 2295.3.2.3 Authorizing Requests 2315.3.2.4 SP-to-IoT-OAS Communication: Protocol Details 2315.3.2.5 Configuration 2325.3.3 IoT-OAS Application Scenarios 2325.3.3.1 Network Broker Communication 2335.3.3.2 Gateway-based Communication 2355.3.3.3 End-to-End CoAP Communication 2355.3.3.4 Hybrid Gateway-based Communication 2356 Cloud and Fog Computing for the IoT 2376.1 Cloud Computing 2376.2 Big Data Processing Pattern 2386.3 Big Stream 2396.3.1 Big-stream-oriented Architecture 2436.3.2 Graph-based Processing 2476.3.3 Implementation 2516.3.3.1 Acquisition Module 2516.3.3.2 Normalization Module 2536.3.3.3 Graph Framework 2546.3.3.4 Application Register Module 2556.3.4 Performance Evaluation 2576.3.5 Solutions and Security Considerations 2626.4 Big Stream and Security 2636.4.1 Graph-based Cloud System Security 2666.4.2 Normalization after a Secure Stream Acquisition with OFS Module 2686.4.3 Enhancing the Application Register with the IGS Module 2696.4.4 Securing Streams inside Graph Nodes 2736.4.5 Evaluation of a Secure Big Stream Architecture 2776.5 Fog Computing and the IoT 2816.6 The Role of the IoTHub 2836.6.1 Virtualization and Replication 2856.6.1.1 The IoT Hub 2856.6.1.2 Operational Scenarios 2876.6.1.3 Synchronization Protocol 2907 The IoT in Practice 3037.1 Hardware for the IoT 3037.1.1 Classes of Constrained Devices 3057.1.2 Hardware Platforms 3077.1.2.1 TelosB 3077.1.2.2 Zolertia Z1 3077.1.2.3 OpenMote 3107.1.2.4 Arduino 3137.1.2.5 Intel Galileo 3157.1.2.6 Raspberry Pi 3187.2 Software for the IoT 3217.2.1 OpenWSN 3217.2.2 TinyOS 3227.2.3 FreeRTOS 3237.2.4 TI-RTOS 3237.2.5 RIOT 3247.2.6 Contiki OS 3257.2.6.1 Networking 3257.2.6.2 Low-power Operation 3267.2.6.3 Simulation 3267.2.6.4 Programming Model 3277.2.6.5 Features 3287.3 Vision and Architecture of a Testbed for theWeb of Things 3287.3.1 An All-IP-based Infrastructure for Smart Objects 3307.3.2 Enabling Interactions with Smart Objects through the IoT Hub 3327.3.2.1 Integration Challenges 3347.3.3 Testbed Access and Security 3357.3.3.1 The Role of Authorization 3357.3.4 Exploiting the Testbed:WoT Applications for Mobile and Wearable Devices 3367.3.5 Open Challenges and Future Vision 3387.4 Wearable Computing for the IoT: Interaction Patterns with Smart Objects in RESTful Environments 3407.4.1 Shaping the Internet ofThings in a Mobile-Centric World 3407.4.2 Interaction Patterns with Smart Objects throughWearable Devices 3427.4.2.1 Smart Object Communication Principles 3427.4.2.2 Interaction Patterns 3437.4.3 Implementation in a Real-world IoT Testbed 3457.4.3.1 Future Vision: towards the Tactile Internet 3487.5 Effective Authorization for theWeb ofThings 3497.5.1 Authorization Framework Architecture 3537.5.1.1 System Operations 3537.5.2 Implementation and Validation 357Reference 359Index 381

SIMONE CIRANI, PHD, is a Co-Founder and Head of IoT at Caligoo Inc., Chicago, IL, USA. GIANLUIGI FERRARI, PHD, is a Faculty Member at the Department of Engineering and Architecture, at the University of Parma, Italy. He is also Co-founder and President of things2i s.r.l., Parma, Italy. MARCO PICONE, PHD, is a Co-Founder and Head of Mobile Computing at Caligoo Inc., Chicago, IL, USA. LUCA VELTRI, PHD, is a Faculty Member at the Department of Engineering and Architecture, at the University of Parma, Italy.

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• Preface xv1 Preliminaries, Motivation, and Related Work 11.1 What is the Internet of Things? 11.2 Wireless Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks:The Ancestors without IP 21.3 IoT-enabled Applications 31.3.1 Home and Building Automation 31.3.2 Smart Cities 41.3.3 Smart Grids 41.3.4 Industrial IoT 51.3.5 Smart Farming 72 Standards 92.1 “Traditional” Internet Review 92.1.1 Physical/Link Layer 102.1.1.1 IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) 112.1.1.2 IEEE 802.11 122.1.2 Network Layer 142.1.2.1 IPv6 and IPv4 142.1.3 Transport Layer 172.1.3.1 TCP and UDP 192.1.4 Application Layer 212.1.4.1 HTTP 212.1.4.2 AMQP 222.1.4.3 SIP 232.2 The Internet ofThings 252.2.1 Designing the Architecture of an IP-based Internet of Things 262.2.2 Physical/Link Layer 282.2.2.1 IEEE 802.15.4 and ZigBee 282.2.2.2 Low-powerWi-Fi 302.2.2.3 Bluetooth and BLE 312.2.2.4 Powerline Communications 322.2.3 Network Layer 332.2.3.1 The 6LoWPAN Adaptation Layer 342.2.4 Transport Layer 342.2.5 Application Layer 342.2.5.1 CoAP 352.2.5.2 CoSIP Protocol Specification 602.3 The Industrial IoT 763 Interoperability 793.1 Applications in the IoT 793.2 The Verticals: Cloud-based Solutions 803.3 REST Architectures:TheWeb of Things 813.3.1 REST: TheWeb as a Platform 823.3.1.1 Resource-oriented Architectures 833.3.1.2 REST Architectures 843.3.1.3 Representation of Resources 843.3.1.4 Resource Identifiers 853.3.1.5 Statelessness 863.3.1.6 Applications as Finite-state Machines 863.3.1.7 Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State 863.3.2 Richardson MaturityModel 883.3.2.1 Level 0: the Swamp of POX 883.3.2.2 Level 1: Resources 903.3.2.3 Level 2: HTTP Verbs 903.3.2.4 Level 3: Hypermedia 953.3.2.5 The Meaning of the Levels 973.4 TheWeb of Things 973.5 Messaging Queues and Publish/Subscribe Communications 983.5.1 Advantages of the Pub/Sub Model 993.5.2 Disadvantages of the Pub/Sub Model 1003.5.3 Message Queue Telemetry Transport 1003.5.3.1 MQTT versus AMQP 1013.6 Session Initiation for the IoT 1023.6.1 Motivations 1023.6.2 Lightweight Sessions in the IoT 1043.6.2.1 A Protocol for Constrained Session Initiation 1063.6.2.2 Session Initiation 1063.6.2.3 Session Tear-down 1083.6.2.4 Session Modification 1083.7 Performance Evaluation 1093.7.1 Implementation 1093.7.2 Experimental Results 1113.7.3 Conclusions 1143.8 Optimized Communications: the Dual-network Management Protocol 1153.8.1 DNMP Motivations 1153.8.2 RelatedWork 1173.8.3 The DNMP Protocol 1183.8.4 Implementation with IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.11s 1233.8.4.1 LPLT Networking 1233.8.4.2 HPHT Networking 1233.8.4.3 Node Integration 1243.8.5 Performance Evaluation 1253.8.5.1 Experimental Setup 1253.8.5.2 Operational Limitations of IEEE 802.15.4 1263.8.6 IEEE 802.15.4-controlled Selective Activation of the IEEE 802.11s Network 1293.8.7 Conclusions 1303.9 Discoverability in Constrained Environments 1313.9.1 CoRE Link Format 1313.9.1.1 CoRE Link Format: Discovery 1323.9.1.2 Link Format 1333.9.1.3 The Interface Description Attribute 1353.9.2 CoRE Interfaces 1353.9.2.1 Sensor 1363.9.2.2 Parameter 1373.9.2.3 Read-only Parameter 1373.9.2.4 Actuator 1373.10 Data Formats: Media Types for Sensor Markup Language 1383.10.1 JSON Representations 1413.10.1.1 Single Datapoint 1413.10.1.2 Multiple Datapoints 1423.10.1.3 Multiple Measurements 1424 Discoverability 1454.1 Service and Resource Discovery 1454.2 Local and Large-scale Service Discovery 1464.2.1 ZeroConf 1514.2.2 UPnP 1524.2.3 URI Beacons and the PhysicalWeb 1524.3 Scalable and Self-configuring Architecture for Service Discovery in the IoT 1544.3.1 IoT Gateway 1564.3.1.1 Proxy Functionality 1564.3.1.2 Service and Resource Discovery 1584.3.2 A P2P-based Large-scale Service Discovery Architecture 1594.3.2.1 Distributed Location Service 1604.3.2.2 Distributed Geographic Table 1614.3.2.3 An Architecture for Large-scale Service Discovery based on Peer-to-peer Technologies 1624.3.3 Zeroconf-based Local Service Discovery for Constrained Environments 1674.3.3.1 Architecture 1674.3.3.2 Service Discovery Protocol 1684.3.4 Implementation Results 1704.3.4.1 Local Service Discovery 1714.3.4.2 Large-scale Service Discovery 1754.4 Lightweight Service Discovery in Low-power IoT Networks 1784.4.1 Efficient Forwarding Protocol for Service Discovery 1804.4.1.1 Multicast through Local Filtered Flooding 1814.4.2 Efficient Multiple Unicast Forwarding 1834.5 Implementation Results 1855 Security and Privacy in the IoT 1915.1 Security Issues in the IoT 1925.2 Security Mechanisms Overview 1965.2.1 Traditional vs Lightweight security 1965.2.1.1 Network Layer 1975.2.1.2 Transport Layer 1995.2.1.3 Application Layer 2015.2.2 Lightweight Cryptography 2025.2.2.1 Symmetric-key LWC Algorithms 2035.2.2.2 Public-key (Asymmetric) LWC Algorithms 2065.2.2.3 Lightweight Cryptographic Hash Functions 2105.2.2.4 Homomorphic Encryption Schemes 2135.2.3 Key Agreement, Distribution, and Security Bootstrapping 2145.2.3.1 Key Agreement Protocols 2155.2.3.2 Shared Group-key Distribution 2155.2.3.3 Security Bootstrapping 2165.2.4 Processing Data in the Encrypted Domain: Secure Data Aggregation 2175.2.5 Authorization Mechanisms for Secure IoT Services 2195.3 Privacy Issues in the IoT 2225.3.1 The Role of Authorization 2225.3.2 IoT-OAS: Delegation-based Authorization for the Internet of Things 2275.3.2.1 Architecture 2275.3.2.2 Granting Access Tokens 2295.3.2.3 Authorizing Requests 2315.3.2.4 SP-to-IoT-OAS Communication: Protocol Details 2315.3.2.5 Configuration 2325.3.3 IoT-OAS Application Scenarios 2325.3.3.1 Network Broker Communication 2335.3.3.2 Gateway-based Communication 2355.3.3.3 End-to-End CoAP Communication 2355.3.3.4 Hybrid Gateway-based Communication 2356 Cloud and Fog Computing for the IoT 2376.1 Cloud Computing 2376.2 Big Data Processing Pattern 2386.3 Big Stream 2396.3.1 Big-stream-oriented Architecture 2436.3.2 Graph-based Processing 2476.3.3 Implementation 2516.3.3.1 Acquisition Module 2516.3.3.2 Normalization Module 2536.3.3.3 Graph Framework 2546.3.3.4 Application Register Module 2556.3.4 Performance Evaluation 2576.3.5 Solutions and Security Considerations 2626.4 Big Stream and Security 2636.4.1 Graph-based Cloud System Security 2666.4.2 Normalization after a Secure Stream Acquisition with OFS Module 2686.4.3 Enhancing the Application Register with the IGS Module 2696.4.4 Securing Streams inside Graph Nodes 2736.4.5 Evaluation of a Secure Big Stream Architecture 2776.5 Fog Computing and the IoT 2816.6 The Role of the IoTHub 2836.6.1 Virtualization and Replication 2856.6.1.1 The IoT Hub 2856.6.1.2 Operational Scenarios 2876.6.1.3 Synchronization Protocol 2907 The IoT in Practice 3037.1 Hardware for the IoT 3037.1.1 Classes of Constrained Devices 3057.1.2 Hardware Platforms 3077.1.2.1 TelosB 3077.1.2.2 Zolertia Z1 3077.1.2.3 OpenMote 3107.1.2.4 Arduino 3137.1.2.5 Intel Galileo 3157.1.2.6 Raspberry Pi 3187.2 Software for the IoT 3217.2.1 OpenWSN 3217.2.2 TinyOS 3227.2.3 FreeRTOS 3237.2.4 TI-RTOS 3237.2.5 RIOT 3247.2.6 Contiki OS 3257.2.6.1 Networking 3257.2.6.2 Low-power Operation 3267.2.6.3 Simulation 3267.2.6.4 Programming Model 3277.2.6.5 Features 3287.3 Vision and Architecture of a Testbed for theWeb of Things 3287.3.1 An All-IP-based Infrastructure for Smart Objects 3307.3.2 Enabling Interactions with Smart Objects through the IoT Hub 3327.3.2.1 Integration Challenges 3347.3.3 Testbed Access and Security 3357.3.3.1 The Role of Authorization 3357.3.4 Exploiting the Testbed:WoT Applications for Mobile and Wearable Devices 3367.3.5 Open Challenges and Future Vision 3387.4 Wearable Computing for the IoT: Interaction Patterns with Smart Objects in RESTful Environments 3407.4.1 Shaping the Internet ofThings in a Mobile-Centric World 3407.4.2 Interaction Patterns with Smart Objects throughWearable Devices 3427.4.2.1 Smart Object Communication Principles 3427.4.2.2 Interaction Patterns 3437.4.3 Implementation in a Real-world IoT Testbed 3457.4.3.1 Future Vision: towards the Tactile Internet 3487.5 Effective Authorization for theWeb ofThings 3497.5.1 Authorization Framework Architecture 3537.5.1.1 System Operations 3537.5.2 Implementation and Validation 357Reference 359Index 381