Nel Samama, PhD, is Professor in the Electronics and Physics Department at the Institut Telecom (France) where he is leading the navigation group. His previous book, "Global Positioning: Technologies and Performance" (Wiley, 2008), provided detailed descriptions of geographical positioning solutions with a particular focus on radio solutions. His work on innovative indoor positioning solutions has led to ten patents as well as numerous publications.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiIntroduction xv1 A Little Piece of History… 11.1 The First Age of Navigation 11.2 Longitude Problem and Importance of Time 21.3 Link Between Time and Space 41.3.1 A Brief History of the Evolution of the Perception of Time 41.3.2 Comparison with the Possible Change in Our Perception of Space 61.4 The Radio Age 81.5 First Terrestrial Positioning Systems 91.6 The Era of Artificial Satellites 111.6.1 GPS System 131.7 New Problem: Availability and Accuracy of Positioning Systems 14Bibliography 152 What Exactly Is the Indoor Positioning Problem? 172.1 General Introduction to Indoor Positioning 182.1.1 Basic Problem: Example of the Navigation Application 192.1.2 The “Perceived” Needs 202.1.3 Wide Range of Possible Technologies 222.1.4 Comments on the “Best” Solution 252.1.4.1 Local or Global Coverage 262.1.4.2 With orWithout Local Infrastructure 272.2 Is Indoor Positioning the Next “Longitude Problem”? 272.3 Quick Summary of the Indoor Problem 30Bibliography 313 General Introduction to Positioning Techniques and Their Associated Difficulties 333.1 Angle-Based Positioning Technique 333.1.1 Pure Angle-Based Positioning Technique 333.1.2 Triangulation-Based Positioning Technique 343.2 Distance-Based Positioning Technique 353.2.1 Distances to Known Environment-Based Positioning Technique 353.2.2 Radar Method 363.2.3 Hyperbolic Method 383.2.4 Mobile Telecommunication Networks 383.3 Doppler-Based Positioning Approach 403.3.1 Doppler Radar Method 403.3.2 Doppler Positioning Approach 413.4 Physical Quantity-Based Positioning Approaches 423.4.1 Luminosity Measurements 423.4.2 Local Networks 423.4.3 Attitude and Heading Reference System 453.4.3.1 Accelerometers 463.4.3.2 Gyrometers 473.4.3.3 Odometers 473.4.3.4 Magnetometers 483.5 Image-Based Positioning Approach 493.6 ILS, MLS, VOR, and DME 493.7 Summary 51Bibliography 524 Various Possible Classifications of Indoor Technologies 554.1 Introduction 554.2 Parameters to Be Considered 564.3 Discussion About These Parameters 574.3.1 Parameters Related to the Hardware of the System 574.3.2 Parameters Related to the Type and Performances of the System 584.3.3 Parameters Related to the Real Implementation of the System 594.3.4 Parameters Related to the Physical Aspects of the System 604.4 Technologies Considered 634.5 Complete Tables 714.6 Playing with the Complete Table 794.7 Selected Approach for the Rest of the Book 88Bibliography 995 Proximity Technologies: Approaches, Performance, and Limitations 1035.1 Bar Codes 1035.2 Contactless Cards and Credit Cards 1075.3 Image Recognition 1095.4 Near-Field Communication – NFC 1125.5 QR Codes 1145.6 Discussion of Other Technologies 117Bibliography 1186 Room-Restricted Technologies: Challenges and Reliability 1216.1 Image Markers 1216.2 Infrared Sensors 1296.3 Laser 1306.4 Lidar 1336.5 Sonar 1366.6 Ultrasound Sensors 138Bibliography 1407 “Set of Rooms” Technologies 1457.1 Radar 1457.2 RFID 1497.3 UWB 152Bibliography 1568 Building Range Technologies 1598.1 Accelerometer 1598.2 Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy 1638.3 Gyrometer 1678.4 Image-Relative Displacement 1698.5 Image SLAM 1718.6 LiFi 1718.7 Light Opportunity 1748.8 Sound 1768.9 Theodolite 1778.10 WiFi 1808.11 Symbolic WiFi 182Bibliography 1879 Building Range Technologies: The Specific Case of Indoor GNSS 1919.1 Introduction 1919.2 Concept of Local Transmitters 1939.3 Pseudolites 1949.4 Repeaters 1989.4.1 Clock Bias Approach 1999.4.2 Pseudo Ranges Approach 2029.4.2.1 Theoretical Aspects 2029.5 Repealites 2069.5.1 Proposed System Architecture 2069.5.2 Advantages 2089.5.3 Limitations 2099.6 Grin-Locs 2099.6.1 Double Antenna 2109.6.1.1 Angle Approach 2109.6.1.2 Quadrics Approach 2119.6.2 Resolution in Case of Several Double Antennas 2139.6.2.1 Positioning with the Angle Approach 2139.6.2.2 Positioning with the Quadric Approach 214Bibliography 21610 Wide Area Indoor Positioning: Block, City, and County Approaches 22310.1 Introduction 22310.2 Amateur Radio 22510.3 ISM Radio Bands (433/868/…MHz) 22610.4 Mobile Networks 22710.4.1 First Networks (GSM) 22710.4.2 Modern Networks (3G, 4G, and 5G) 23210.5 LoRa and SigFox 23410.6 AM/FM Radio 23610.7 TV 237Bibliography 23911 Worldwide Indoor Positioning Technologies: Achievable Performance 24111.1 Argos and COSPAS-SARSAT Systems 24111.1.1 Argos System 24111.1.2 COSPAS-SARSAT System 24411.2 GNSS 24611.3 High-Accuracy GNSS 24811.3.1 HS-GNSS 24911.3.2 A-GNSS 25111.4 Magnetometer 25311.5 Pressure Sensor 25611.6 Radio Signals of Opportunity 25811.7 Wired Networks 259Bibliography 26112 Combining Techniques and Technologies 26712.1 Introduction 26712.2 Fusion and Hybridization 26912.2.1 Strategies for Combining Technologies 26912.2.2 Strategies for Choosing the Optimal Data 27012.2.2.1 Least Squares Method 27312.2.3 Classification and Estimators 27412.2.4 Filtering 27512.3 Collaborative Approaches 27612.3.1 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Velocities 27612.3.2 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements in Case Some Nodes Are Fixed 28012.3.3 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Angles 28212.3.4 Approach Using Distance Measurements 28512.3.5 Approach Analyzing the Deformation of the Network 28712.3.6 Comments 28812.4 General Discussion 290Bibliography 29113 Maps 29513.1 Map: Not Just an Image 29613.2 Indoor Poses Specific Problems 29713.3 Map Representations 29813.4 Recording Tools 30113.5 Some Examples of the Use of Indoor Mapping 30413.5.1 Some Guiding Applications 30513.5.2 Some Services Associated with Mapping 30613.6 Synthesis 308Bibliography 30814 Synthesis and Possible Forthcoming “Evolution” 31114.1 Indoor Positioning: Signals of Opportunity or Local Infrastructure? 31214.1.1 A Few Constrained Selections 31214.1.2 Comparison of Three Approaches and Discussion 31514.1.2.1 Inverted GNSS Radar 31514.1.2.2 NFC-Distributed System and Its Map 31614.1.2.3 Cooperative Approach Between Communicating Terminals 31714.2 Discussion 31914.3 Possible Evolution of Everybody’s Daily Life 32114.3.1 Student’s Day 32114.3.1.1 Morning Session at the University 32214.3.2 Improving an Outpatient’s Visit to Hospital 32314.3.2.1 Preparation of the “Journeys” 32314.3.2.2 Displacements of Patients and Automatic Rescheduling 32314.3.2.3 Reports – Analytics 32314.3.3 Flow of People in Public Places 32514.4 Internet of Things and Internet of Everything 32614.5 Possible Future Approaches 32714.6 Conclusion 330Bibliography 331Index 333

Nel Samama, PhD, is Professor in the Electronics and Physics Department at the Institut Telecom (France) where he is leading the navigation group. His previous book, "Global Positioning: Technologies and Performance" (Wiley, 2008), provided detailed descriptions of geographical positioning solutions with a particular focus on radio solutions. His work on innovative indoor positioning solutions has led to ten patents as well as numerous publications.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiIntroduction xv1 A Little Piece of History… 11.1 The First Age of Navigation 11.2 Longitude Problem and Importance of Time 21.3 Link Between Time and Space 41.3.1 A Brief History of the Evolution of the Perception of Time 41.3.2 Comparison with the Possible Change in Our Perception of Space 61.4 The Radio Age 81.5 First Terrestrial Positioning Systems 91.6 The Era of Artificial Satellites 111.6.1 GPS System 131.7 New Problem: Availability and Accuracy of Positioning Systems 14Bibliography 152 What Exactly Is the Indoor Positioning Problem? 172.1 General Introduction to Indoor Positioning 182.1.1 Basic Problem: Example of the Navigation Application 192.1.2 The “Perceived” Needs 202.1.3 Wide Range of Possible Technologies 222.1.4 Comments on the “Best” Solution 252.1.4.1 Local or Global Coverage 262.1.4.2 With orWithout Local Infrastructure 272.2 Is Indoor Positioning the Next “Longitude Problem”? 272.3 Quick Summary of the Indoor Problem 30Bibliography 313 General Introduction to Positioning Techniques and Their Associated Difficulties 333.1 Angle-Based Positioning Technique 333.1.1 Pure Angle-Based Positioning Technique 333.1.2 Triangulation-Based Positioning Technique 343.2 Distance-Based Positioning Technique 353.2.1 Distances to Known Environment-Based Positioning Technique 353.2.2 Radar Method 363.2.3 Hyperbolic Method 383.2.4 Mobile Telecommunication Networks 383.3 Doppler-Based Positioning Approach 403.3.1 Doppler Radar Method 403.3.2 Doppler Positioning Approach 413.4 Physical Quantity-Based Positioning Approaches 423.4.1 Luminosity Measurements 423.4.2 Local Networks 423.4.3 Attitude and Heading Reference System 453.4.3.1 Accelerometers 463.4.3.2 Gyrometers 473.4.3.3 Odometers 473.4.3.4 Magnetometers 483.5 Image-Based Positioning Approach 493.6 ILS, MLS, VOR, and DME 493.7 Summary 51Bibliography 524 Various Possible Classifications of Indoor Technologies 554.1 Introduction 554.2 Parameters to Be Considered 564.3 Discussion About These Parameters 574.3.1 Parameters Related to the Hardware of the System 574.3.2 Parameters Related to the Type and Performances of the System 584.3.3 Parameters Related to the Real Implementation of the System 594.3.4 Parameters Related to the Physical Aspects of the System 604.4 Technologies Considered 634.5 Complete Tables 714.6 Playing with the Complete Table 794.7 Selected Approach for the Rest of the Book 88Bibliography 995 Proximity Technologies: Approaches, Performance, and Limitations 1035.1 Bar Codes 1035.2 Contactless Cards and Credit Cards 1075.3 Image Recognition 1095.4 Near-Field Communication – NFC 1125.5 QR Codes 1145.6 Discussion of Other Technologies 117Bibliography 1186 Room-Restricted Technologies: Challenges and Reliability 1216.1 Image Markers 1216.2 Infrared Sensors 1296.3 Laser 1306.4 Lidar 1336.5 Sonar 1366.6 Ultrasound Sensors 138Bibliography 1407 “Set of Rooms” Technologies 1457.1 Radar 1457.2 RFID 1497.3 UWB 152Bibliography 1568 Building Range Technologies 1598.1 Accelerometer 1598.2 Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy 1638.3 Gyrometer 1678.4 Image-Relative Displacement 1698.5 Image SLAM 1718.6 LiFi 1718.7 Light Opportunity 1748.8 Sound 1768.9 Theodolite 1778.10 WiFi 1808.11 Symbolic WiFi 182Bibliography 1879 Building Range Technologies: The Specific Case of Indoor GNSS 1919.1 Introduction 1919.2 Concept of Local Transmitters 1939.3 Pseudolites 1949.4 Repeaters 1989.4.1 Clock Bias Approach 1999.4.2 Pseudo Ranges Approach 2029.4.2.1 Theoretical Aspects 2029.5 Repealites 2069.5.1 Proposed System Architecture 2069.5.2 Advantages 2089.5.3 Limitations 2099.6 Grin-Locs 2099.6.1 Double Antenna 2109.6.1.1 Angle Approach 2109.6.1.2 Quadrics Approach 2119.6.2 Resolution in Case of Several Double Antennas 2139.6.2.1 Positioning with the Angle Approach 2139.6.2.2 Positioning with the Quadric Approach 214Bibliography 21610 Wide Area Indoor Positioning: Block, City, and County Approaches 22310.1 Introduction 22310.2 Amateur Radio 22510.3 ISM Radio Bands (433/868/…MHz) 22610.4 Mobile Networks 22710.4.1 First Networks (GSM) 22710.4.2 Modern Networks (3G, 4G, and 5G) 23210.5 LoRa and SigFox 23410.6 AM/FM Radio 23610.7 TV 237Bibliography 23911 Worldwide Indoor Positioning Technologies: Achievable Performance 24111.1 Argos and COSPAS-SARSAT Systems 24111.1.1 Argos System 24111.1.2 COSPAS-SARSAT System 24411.2 GNSS 24611.3 High-Accuracy GNSS 24811.3.1 HS-GNSS 24911.3.2 A-GNSS 25111.4 Magnetometer 25311.5 Pressure Sensor 25611.6 Radio Signals of Opportunity 25811.7 Wired Networks 259Bibliography 26112 Combining Techniques and Technologies 26712.1 Introduction 26712.2 Fusion and Hybridization 26912.2.1 Strategies for Combining Technologies 26912.2.2 Strategies for Choosing the Optimal Data 27012.2.2.1 Least Squares Method 27312.2.3 Classification and Estimators 27412.2.4 Filtering 27512.3 Collaborative Approaches 27612.3.1 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Velocities 27612.3.2 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements in Case Some Nodes Are Fixed 28012.3.3 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Angles 28212.3.4 Approach Using Distance Measurements 28512.3.5 Approach Analyzing the Deformation of the Network 28712.3.6 Comments 28812.4 General Discussion 290Bibliography 29113 Maps 29513.1 Map: Not Just an Image 29613.2 Indoor Poses Specific Problems 29713.3 Map Representations 29813.4 Recording Tools 30113.5 Some Examples of the Use of Indoor Mapping 30413.5.1 Some Guiding Applications 30513.5.2 Some Services Associated with Mapping 30613.6 Synthesis 308Bibliography 30814 Synthesis and Possible Forthcoming “Evolution” 31114.1 Indoor Positioning: Signals of Opportunity or Local Infrastructure? 31214.1.1 A Few Constrained Selections 31214.1.2 Comparison of Three Approaches and Discussion 31514.1.2.1 Inverted GNSS Radar 31514.1.2.2 NFC-Distributed System and Its Map 31614.1.2.3 Cooperative Approach Between Communicating Terminals 31714.2 Discussion 31914.3 Possible Evolution of Everybody’s Daily Life 32114.3.1 Student’s Day 32114.3.1.1 Morning Session at the University 32214.3.2 Improving an Outpatient’s Visit to Hospital 32314.3.2.1 Preparation of the “Journeys” 32314.3.2.2 Displacements of Patients and Automatic Rescheduling 32314.3.2.3 Reports – Analytics 32314.3.3 Flow of People in Public Places 32514.4 Internet of Things and Internet of Everything 32614.5 Possible Future Approaches 32714.6 Conclusion 330Bibliography 331Index 333

Nel Samama, PhD, is Professor in the Electronics and Physics Department at the Institut Telecom (France) where he is leading the navigation group. His previous book, "Global Positioning: Technologies and Performance" (Wiley, 2008), provided detailed descriptions of geographical positioning solutions with a particular focus on radio solutions. His work on innovative indoor positioning solutions has led to ten patents as well as numerous publications.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiIntroduction xv1 A Little Piece of History… 11.1 The First Age of Navigation 11.2 Longitude Problem and Importance of Time 21.3 Link Between Time and Space 41.3.1 A Brief History of the Evolution of the Perception of Time 41.3.2 Comparison with the Possible Change in Our Perception of Space 61.4 The Radio Age 81.5 First Terrestrial Positioning Systems 91.6 The Era of Artificial Satellites 111.6.1 GPS System 131.7 New Problem: Availability and Accuracy of Positioning Systems 14Bibliography 152 What Exactly Is the Indoor Positioning Problem? 172.1 General Introduction to Indoor Positioning 182.1.1 Basic Problem: Example of the Navigation Application 192.1.2 The “Perceived” Needs 202.1.3 Wide Range of Possible Technologies 222.1.4 Comments on the “Best” Solution 252.1.4.1 Local or Global Coverage 262.1.4.2 With orWithout Local Infrastructure 272.2 Is Indoor Positioning the Next “Longitude Problem”? 272.3 Quick Summary of the Indoor Problem 30Bibliography 313 General Introduction to Positioning Techniques and Their Associated Difficulties 333.1 Angle-Based Positioning Technique 333.1.1 Pure Angle-Based Positioning Technique 333.1.2 Triangulation-Based Positioning Technique 343.2 Distance-Based Positioning Technique 353.2.1 Distances to Known Environment-Based Positioning Technique 353.2.2 Radar Method 363.2.3 Hyperbolic Method 383.2.4 Mobile Telecommunication Networks 383.3 Doppler-Based Positioning Approach 403.3.1 Doppler Radar Method 403.3.2 Doppler Positioning Approach 413.4 Physical Quantity-Based Positioning Approaches 423.4.1 Luminosity Measurements 423.4.2 Local Networks 423.4.3 Attitude and Heading Reference System 453.4.3.1 Accelerometers 463.4.3.2 Gyrometers 473.4.3.3 Odometers 473.4.3.4 Magnetometers 483.5 Image-Based Positioning Approach 493.6 ILS, MLS, VOR, and DME 493.7 Summary 51Bibliography 524 Various Possible Classifications of Indoor Technologies 554.1 Introduction 554.2 Parameters to Be Considered 564.3 Discussion About These Parameters 574.3.1 Parameters Related to the Hardware of the System 574.3.2 Parameters Related to the Type and Performances of the System 584.3.3 Parameters Related to the Real Implementation of the System 594.3.4 Parameters Related to the Physical Aspects of the System 604.4 Technologies Considered 634.5 Complete Tables 714.6 Playing with the Complete Table 794.7 Selected Approach for the Rest of the Book 88Bibliography 995 Proximity Technologies: Approaches, Performance, and Limitations 1035.1 Bar Codes 1035.2 Contactless Cards and Credit Cards 1075.3 Image Recognition 1095.4 Near-Field Communication – NFC 1125.5 QR Codes 1145.6 Discussion of Other Technologies 117Bibliography 1186 Room-Restricted Technologies: Challenges and Reliability 1216.1 Image Markers 1216.2 Infrared Sensors 1296.3 Laser 1306.4 Lidar 1336.5 Sonar 1366.6 Ultrasound Sensors 138Bibliography 1407 “Set of Rooms” Technologies 1457.1 Radar 1457.2 RFID 1497.3 UWB 152Bibliography 1568 Building Range Technologies 1598.1 Accelerometer 1598.2 Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy 1638.3 Gyrometer 1678.4 Image-Relative Displacement 1698.5 Image SLAM 1718.6 LiFi 1718.7 Light Opportunity 1748.8 Sound 1768.9 Theodolite 1778.10 WiFi 1808.11 Symbolic WiFi 182Bibliography 1879 Building Range Technologies: The Specific Case of Indoor GNSS 1919.1 Introduction 1919.2 Concept of Local Transmitters 1939.3 Pseudolites 1949.4 Repeaters 1989.4.1 Clock Bias Approach 1999.4.2 Pseudo Ranges Approach 2029.4.2.1 Theoretical Aspects 2029.5 Repealites 2069.5.1 Proposed System Architecture 2069.5.2 Advantages 2089.5.3 Limitations 2099.6 Grin-Locs 2099.6.1 Double Antenna 2109.6.1.1 Angle Approach 2109.6.1.2 Quadrics Approach 2119.6.2 Resolution in Case of Several Double Antennas 2139.6.2.1 Positioning with the Angle Approach 2139.6.2.2 Positioning with the Quadric Approach 214Bibliography 21610 Wide Area Indoor Positioning: Block, City, and County Approaches 22310.1 Introduction 22310.2 Amateur Radio 22510.3 ISM Radio Bands (433/868/…MHz) 22610.4 Mobile Networks 22710.4.1 First Networks (GSM) 22710.4.2 Modern Networks (3G, 4G, and 5G) 23210.5 LoRa and SigFox 23410.6 AM/FM Radio 23610.7 TV 237Bibliography 23911 Worldwide Indoor Positioning Technologies: Achievable Performance 24111.1 Argos and COSPAS-SARSAT Systems 24111.1.1 Argos System 24111.1.2 COSPAS-SARSAT System 24411.2 GNSS 24611.3 High-Accuracy GNSS 24811.3.1 HS-GNSS 24911.3.2 A-GNSS 25111.4 Magnetometer 25311.5 Pressure Sensor 25611.6 Radio Signals of Opportunity 25811.7 Wired Networks 259Bibliography 26112 Combining Techniques and Technologies 26712.1 Introduction 26712.2 Fusion and Hybridization 26912.2.1 Strategies for Combining Technologies 26912.2.2 Strategies for Choosing the Optimal Data 27012.2.2.1 Least Squares Method 27312.2.3 Classification and Estimators 27412.2.4 Filtering 27512.3 Collaborative Approaches 27612.3.1 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Velocities 27612.3.2 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements in Case Some Nodes Are Fixed 28012.3.3 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Angles 28212.3.4 Approach Using Distance Measurements 28512.3.5 Approach Analyzing the Deformation of the Network 28712.3.6 Comments 28812.4 General Discussion 290Bibliography 29113 Maps 29513.1 Map: Not Just an Image 29613.2 Indoor Poses Specific Problems 29713.3 Map Representations 29813.4 Recording Tools 30113.5 Some Examples of the Use of Indoor Mapping 30413.5.1 Some Guiding Applications 30513.5.2 Some Services Associated with Mapping 30613.6 Synthesis 308Bibliography 30814 Synthesis and Possible Forthcoming “Evolution” 31114.1 Indoor Positioning: Signals of Opportunity or Local Infrastructure? 31214.1.1 A Few Constrained Selections 31214.1.2 Comparison of Three Approaches and Discussion 31514.1.2.1 Inverted GNSS Radar 31514.1.2.2 NFC-Distributed System and Its Map 31614.1.2.3 Cooperative Approach Between Communicating Terminals 31714.2 Discussion 31914.3 Possible Evolution of Everybody’s Daily Life 32114.3.1 Student’s Day 32114.3.1.1 Morning Session at the University 32214.3.2 Improving an Outpatient’s Visit to Hospital 32314.3.2.1 Preparation of the “Journeys” 32314.3.2.2 Displacements of Patients and Automatic Rescheduling 32314.3.2.3 Reports – Analytics 32314.3.3 Flow of People in Public Places 32514.4 Internet of Things and Internet of Everything 32614.5 Possible Future Approaches 32714.6 Conclusion 330Bibliography 331Index 333